
i! iSl:i l\[M\i\\V,\ 






CITY STATE 
AND NATION 

WILLIAM L.NIDA 








Class 
Book. 



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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 



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THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 



CITY, STATE, AND 
NATION 



A TEXT BOOK ON CONSTRUCTIVE CITIZENSHIP 

FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS AND 

JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 



BY 



WILLIAM L. NIDA 

SUPERINTENDED OF SCHOOLS, RIVER FOREST, ILLINOIS 

AUTHOR OF "THE DAWN 01 \Ml.kh \ \ 

HISTORY IN M ROP1 .'" KTC. 



Nrto gork 
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1914 

All rights reserved 



.IM5 



Copyright, 1914, 
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 

Set up and electrotyped. Published July, 1914. 



JUL 23 1914 



Nortooott ^«88 

J. S. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



©CU37G767 



THE OATH TAKEN BY THE BOYS OF OLD ATHENS 
WHEN THEY WERE ADMITTED TO THE ARMY 



" "\^/" E SHALL "EVE* I!KIN( 
* * ACT OF DISHONESTY Ol 



JG DISGRACE TO IHI^. OUB CITY, BY ANY 
OE COWARDICE, N<>R BVEB DESEBT OUI 
PEEING COMRADES IN THE RANKS. \Ye WILL FIGHT FOR THE IDEALS IND 
SACRED THINGS OF THE CITY, BOTH ALONE AND WITH MANY. YVe WILL 
REVERE AND OBEY THE CITY'S LAWS \NI> DO OUB BEST TO INCITE A LIKE 
RESPECT AND REVERENCE IN THOSE ABOVE OS WHO IBS TRONE TO ANNUL 
OR TO SET THEM AT NAUGHT. WE WILL STRIVE UNCEASINGLY TO 
QUICKEN THE PUBLIC'S SENS] ok CIVIC DUTY. Tins. IN AIL THES1 
WAYS, WE WILL TRANSMIT THIS CITY NOT ONLT WOT LESS, BUT GREATER, 
BETTER, AND MORE BEAUTIFUL THAN IT WAS TBANSMITTED I" DS." 



PREFACE 

The education of all American youth at public expense is 
usually justified on the ground that school training will 
make them better citizens and more faithful and loyal ser- 
vants of the state. The state will therefore be perpetuated 
and the public welfare enhanced. 

From this point of view it would seem that training in 
some sort of civics or citizenship should have a definite and 
prominent place in all grammar and high school curricula. 
This is, however, far from being a fact. Some of the best 
schools have no definite civics course whatever. The 
reason for this, the author believes, is not that teachers do 
not desire to give special training in citizenship, but that 
no suitable and teachable texts for young people have yet 
appeared. There are, it is true, scores of treatises on gov- 
ernment ; but to the immature mind they are dull and 
lifeless — mere analyses of governmental forms. Such 
discussions are utterly beyond the experience of children 
and are therefore unintelligible. 

Rather than waste the pupil's time with bare memory 
facts, many superintendents have banished the subject 
from the course, preferring to teach the elements of good 
citizenship incidentally. This has proved so unsatisfactory 
that there is to-day a growing demand for something teach- 
able, tangible, and constructive on real citizenship. 

This volume endeavors to look at government from the 
youth's point of view, putting the problems and needs of 
society prominent and foremost, and from these working 
to their solution through the government. This method is 



viii PREFACE 

believed to be pedagogical, interesting, and stimulating to 
young people, not only inculcating lessons in patriotism, 
but, at the same time, developing the mental faculties 
with the live, practical problems with which society is 
wrestling to-day. 

Many of these chapters have been tried out in our 
classes, and the way they have been received abundantly 
justifies our faith in this sort of civics. 

WILLIAM L. NIDA. 



CONTENTS 



PART I. THE CITY 

CHAPTER 

I. The City, a Problem 

II. City Planning . 

III. City Health 

IV. The City Water 
V. Drainage and Sewerage 

VI. Disposal of Garbage and Rubbish 

VII. The Cleaning of City Streets 

VIII. City Housing .... 

IX. The Problem of the Poor 

X. Municipal Markets . 

XI. Smoke and Noise Abatement . 

XII. Freight Terminals . 

XIII. City Passenger Transportation 

XIV. Public Highways 
XV. Trees for Streets . 

XVI. Public Recreation . 

XVII. Schools 

XVIII. The Public Library 

XIX. Fire Fighting .... 

XX. Fire Protection 

XXI. Taxes 

XXII. Government .... 

XXIII. City Government 

XXIV. New Forms of City Government 

ix 



PAGE 

I 

IO 

24 
31 
51 

63 

73 

78 

87 

92 

96 

103 

no 

120 

130 
138 

146 

157 
165 

177 
188 

194 
198 
205 



CONTENTS 
PART II. THE STATE 

CHAPTER P AGE 

XXV. Hereditary Types of Local Government . 211 

XXVI. County Government 215 

XXVII. State and County Prisons . . . .219 

XXVIII. Charitable Institutions 230 

XXIX. Commissioners and Country Roads . . 233 

XXX. State Government 243 

XXXI. The Voters 248 

XXXII. Elections 251 

PART III. THE NATION 



XXXIII. The Central Government 

XXXIV. Congress 
XXXV. National Courts . 

XXXVI. The Presidency . 

XXXVII. The State Department 

XXXVIII. The Treasury Department 

XXXIX. The Post Office Department 

XL. The War Department 

XLI. Other Cabinet Departments 

XLII. Political Parties 

APPENDIX . 



258 

265 
271 
274 
280 
284 
289 
294 
298 
304 

309 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 



CHAPTER I 
THE CITY, A PROBLEM 

City Growth in the Past Century. — The marvelous way 
in which cities are growing to-day is a movement of the 
last century. In no other age of the world's history have 
cities shown one half the rapid growth that is seen to-day 
in every civilized land. It is not uncommon in the grow- 
ing suburbs of large cities to read advertisements such as : 
" Three more miles of new homes." Acres and sections of 
ground that were a short time ago open green fields are now 
covered with rows of buildings packed closely together. 

In the year 1800 there were in the United States only 
six cities with a population of 8000 inhabitants or more ; 
there are now about six hundred, among which are some 
of the largest cities of the world. A hundred years ago a 
little more than three per cent of the population of the 
United States lived in towns of 8000 or more. In 19 10 a 
third of the ninety millions were packed into cities of more 
than 25,000 each. During the last fifty years the propor- 
tion of city dwellers has increased to more than forty per 
cent. Twelve per cent of all Americans now live in New 
York, Chicago, and Philadelphia. 

Recently there died in Chicago a man who was the first 
white child born in the city. At the time of his birth there 
were, besides Fort Dearborn, only five houses in Chicago. 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 



During his life of eighty-five years he saw the city grow 
from less than one hundred souls to a population of more 
than two millions of people. 




Original owned by Chicago Historical Society. 
Chicago in 1834. 

The Movement World-wide. — This amazing growth of 
cities is not confined to the United States nor to the western 
continent. Throughout the world the cities have made a 
tremendous growth in the last century. In the forty 
years between 1850 and 1890 Berlin grew more rapidly 
than New York. Paris and St. Petersburg are each five 
times as large as they were a hundred years ago. Bombay, 
Tokio, and Cairo have likewise grown wonderfully in re- 
cent times. London is nearly two thousand years old, yet 
four fifths of its growth was added during the last century. 
From every continent cities may be chosen to illustrate 
this world-wide movement of people to the cities. 



THE CITY, A PROBLEM 




The Heart of Chicago. 



Underlying Causes. - City life is more attractive than 
country life to most people. The chief reason for this is 
that man is a social being ; he likes the company of his 
fellows. Moreover, the city has many conveniences that 
the country lacks, such as clean, hard streets, gas, and 
electric lights ; especially have the modern electric light, 
splendid lire department, and the city water supply systems 
influenced city growth. Wages in the city are usually bet- 
ter, and working hours are shorter. There are more amuse- 
ments, superior educational advantages, more opportunities 
to amass riches, more excitement, more pleasure, more life. 

There are, however, several deeper reasons for the recent 



4 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

great increase in city population. One of these is the use 
of machinery in agriculture. It is said that four laborers 
with improved farm tools can now do the work formerly 
done by fourteen men. Before the reaper was invented it 
took three hours of labor for every bushel of wheat raised, 
while to-day each bushel averages ten minutes of labor. 
Since the world can only consume about so much food, a 





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large proportion of farmers have been forced to abandon 
farming and seek some other livelihood in a city or a town. 
The more improvements there are in agricultural machinery, 
the more food one farm laborer can produce, and the fewer 
men are needed to feed the world. 

Another cause of the modern city's growth is the use of 
machinery instead of muscular power in manufactures. 
Steam engines and numerous other inventions have made 
many changes. Factory towns have sprung up and work- 
men have flocked thither to operate the machinery which 
makes the thousand and one things the world needs. 



THE CITY, A PROBLEM 5 

Strange as it may seem, while it lessened the number 
needed on farms, machinery increased the proportion of 
workmen needed in manufacturing. The explanation is 
that there seems to be a limit to the amount of foodstuff 
the world can use ; but articles of furniture, clothing, hard- 
ware, books, and luxuries find an unlimited demand. As 
the world advances in education and culture and wealth, 




Courtesy of B. (f O. Railroad. 
Bringing Food and Other Supplies to the Cities. Baltimore & Ohio Railroad. 

there is an increased demand for such luxuries and con- 
veniences. Machinery has so reduced the cost of all these 
things as to bring them within the reach of nearly every 
one. Since factories are growing larger all the time, 
there is a need for more workmen to operate the machinery, 
and this swells the town population. 

The Influence of Transportation Facilities. — A third 
reason for the growth of modern cities is the quick trans- 
portation furnished by the railroads. It is now a simple 
matter to transport food enough for the millions of people 
gathered together in one city. In the old days famines 



6 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

occurred in one land when grain was rotting on the ground 
not a hundred miles away. It was almost impossible in 
those times to supply a large city with food, water, and fuel. 
Machinery and the railroads have changed all this, for 
the steamship and locomotive now transport food from 
one end of the world to the other. 

The electric cars have played an important part in the 
making of great cities, since they carry people to and 
from their work and enable the city factories to draw their 
workmen from a wider city limit. The slowness of horse 
cars compelled the workman to live near his work, thus 
preventing the spreading of the population. The steam 
car was not practicable on city streets, but the trolley 
was a great success from the first. It made such speed 
that a workman might live three times as far from his 
work as before. In this way the trolley built up city 
suburbs. 

After the coming of electric cars the cities grew mar- 
velously and the street cars multiplied. The cars and 
vehicles in the heart of great cities like New York and 
Chicago became so numerous that they delayed one another 
and checked the progress of pedestrians. In order to meet 
this difficulty, about twenty-five years ago the elevated 
railway was built over the streets in some large cities, 
while in others subways were dug underground. New 
York and Boston have both elevated and subway railroads, 
while Chicago, already served by a large system of elevated 
roads, is planning an extensive subway system. Subways 
seem to be preferred to other means of transit because they 
are safer, swifter, and quieter. 

The automobile with its explosive engine has come 
more recently, and the streets and boulevards are swarm- 
ing with them as they hurry their occupants to and from 



THE CITY, A PROBLEM 




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Double-deck Stepless Car equipped for Summer Service. 



8 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

business. They enable city people to live far out in the 
country, even beyond trolley car service. 

The elevator has helped to make possible the immense 
skyscrapers. By it the employees and the public reach 
quickly even the topmost office of these modern wonders 
of buildings. 

Means of Communication. — The telephone enables 
the offices in the tall beehives to keep in touch with all 
parts of the city and to conduct their business from one 
spot. It brings together subscribers even when they live 
many miles apart. 

City Zones. — It is this greatly improved means of trans- 
portation and communication that have made it possible 
to separate a city into zones or sections, some set apart 
for residence districts and others for business. In the best 
modern cities the people who swarm the stores and offices 
in the business district during the day may be at night in 
their homes from ten to forty miles away. 

The Problem of Future Growth. — Men who have studied 
for many years this movement of mankind cityward de- 
clare that it is bound to continue and will probably increase 
for many years to come. This means more overcrowding, 
more disease, more unsightliness of streets and buildings 
in the places where thousands are forced to spend their 
lives. If this be true, the men of to-day ought to lay large 
and enduring foundations for the city of to-morrow. 

Yet in America people have not yet learned to govern 
their cities well, and this is the most serious and important 
study of politics. The state and national governments, 
while not altogether satisfactory, are under far better con- 
trol than is the average city. In the city it is difficult to 
apprehend the criminal and to stop vice and gambling. 
In many cases the city officials do not carry out the wishes 



THE CITY, A PROBLEM 9 

of the people. If we do not learn how to govern our city 
of to-day, what shall we expect of the city of the future 
with the continued spreading of city limits ? 

The more persons there are crowded together, the harder 
are all the social problems to solve — the health question, 
the problem of good air, light, water, and gas. Added to 
these are the subjects of crime, of better transportation, 
safer housing, parks and playgrounds, and a hundred other 
topics that are pressing for consideration. In order that 
we may understand the city and how to govern it, we must 
know intimately the chief problems of city life and how the 
wisest city administrations have solved them. 

Questions on the Text 

1. How long has the remarkable growth of cities been going on? 

2. Is the unusual growth of cities confined to the United States? 

3. Mention cities elsewhere that have grown rapidly. 4. What 
makes city life attractive ? 5. How has the use of machinery in agri- 
culture affected city growth ? 6. The use of machinery in manufac- 
turing ? 7. What effect has the railroad had upon city growth? 
8. Explain the effect of electric trolley cars. 9. Why have large 
cities come to use elevated cars and subways? 10. What effect will 
the automobiles have on cities? 11. What reason can you give 
for thinking cities will continue to grow ? 12. Name some city orob- 
lems that we have not yet entirely solved in our count ry. 

Questions on your Home City 

13. Is your city growing? 14. If so, give reasons. 15. If not, 
why not ? 16. What effect have railroads had upon your city ? 
17. What reasons do people give for moving to your city ? 18. Have 
you street cars or interurban lines ? If so, how have they affected 
your city ? 

The teacher should use each chapter with the questions appended as a 
basis for studying local conditions. With slight encouragement pupils will 
gladly investigate the conditions and problems of their own city and bring 
in valuable material for class discussion. 



CHAPTER II 
CITY PLANNING 

City Health Conditions. — When the Boer War broke 
out between England and her South African colonies, men 
were greatly needed to swell the British army. Most of 
the men who offered to enlist were city dwellers, and a large 
part of them were rejected. Sixty per cent of the men of 
London who offered themselves for service were found to 
be physically unfit for the soldier life. This was an alarm- 
ing condition caused by their manner of living in a large 
city. The British Empire, whose fighting force must come 
largely from cities, trembled to know that not half of her 
city men were fit to be called on to defend their flag. Then 
London began to tear down miles of unhealthy tenements, 
and to make living conditions safer for her people by pro- 
viding parks where her citizens might enjoy fresh air and 
sunshine. 

It is said that the streets of London, like those of Boston, 
grew up along crooked cow paths. Such narrow, ill- 
planned thoroughfares may serve a small town, but a large 
city demands more forethought. Up above these narrow 
streets tower mammoth buildings, story above story, each 
one a shelf of busy offices. One such building of twenty or 
thirty stories may shelter 6000 workers under one roof 
— a city population on one lot. Along other narrow streets 
are factories swarming with human workers. At the 
sound of the whistle the immense factories and skyscrapers 
send forth their thousands of employees upon the nar- 



CITY PLANNING n 

row, crooked streets to elbow one another in the rush for 
home. 

The great cities of Germany, France, Austria, and other 
continental nations, as well as England, are at work in 
earnest to remedy health conditions. They are control- 
ling their growth by rigid building laws. Laws have been 
made to provide a certain minimum of open space around 
each building, thus assuring a fair amount of pure air and 
light. A fixed amount of light and ventilation is required 
for each house and a limit to the height of each building, 
depending usually on the width of the street, has been 
established. Thus many of the dark, airless houses and 
disease-ridden tenements have been abolished, and no 
others will be allowed. 

In order to control the future growth, certain cities 
have bought up and hold in public ownership large areas 
of vacant land both within and without the city limits. 
This will be sold with binding restrictions. Nothing that 
is of consequence to the city as a whole will be left to whims 
or profits of the real estate man. The restrictions have to 
do with the kind and character of the buildings that are 
to be erected, the size of the lots and the width of the streets. 

One of the first needs of a city is enough streets, suffi- 
ciently wide and running in the right direction, to enable 
the people to go about the city quickly and conveniently. 
" Time saved is money earned." The day is made up of 
minutes, and every minute saved lengthens the day for the 
business man. Well-planned streets are worth many times 
more than they cost in what they save the people of the 
present, to say nothing of those in the future. 

In America we are suffering from lack of laws regulating 
building. The cities that have building laws seldom 
enforce them. Much is left to the greedy or ignorant 



12 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 



builders, who are free to crowd people together by the hun- 
dreds in order to increase the rent. Towns and suburbs 
are growing up, and adjoining subdivisions are being devel- 
oped with little regard to health or beauty, or to the future 
convenience of the people. The real estate man is deter- 
mined to plan the city additions in the way that will best 
serve his profits. 

Designed Cities. — Washington. — Though by far the 
greater number have grown up in a haphazard manner, 







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Our Well-planned Capital — Washington. The White House, from 
which Diagonal Streets Radiate. 



some few cities in the world have been designed, that is, 
built up after a carefully worked out plan. The city of 
Washington, D.C., is the most prominent example of a city 
scientifically planned. After George Washington had 
chosen the site for our national capital in 1791, a French 
engineer named Pierre Charles L'Enfant, who had done 
good service in the Revolutionary War, was chosen to pre- 
pare a plan for the town. With wonderful wisdom and 



CITY PLANNING 13 

rare foresight he made a design that not only met with the 
approval of George Washington and the commissioners 
who were then in charge, but it meets with the hearty 
approval of expert city planners of to-day. 

The ground plan of the city of Washington is after the 
checkerboard fashion with a series of streets running east 
and west. These are crossed at right angles by another 
series of streets running north and south. This checker- 
board plan for convenience to traffic is cut by twenty-one 
avenues running diagonally through the city and coming 
together at the Capitol, White House, and other centers 
and squares. The streets are lined with fine trees, they 
are wide, and there are many large squares. Washington 
has become famous throughout the world for its convenience 
and beauty. 

Paris. — The renowned city of Paris half a century ago 
undertook to remodel its plan to meet the needs of its 
commerce, its traffic, and its growth. The work was put 
in the hands of M. Deschamps, who with splendid vision 
laid out a magnificent system of boulevards to be cut 
through the built-up part of the city. It cost an enormous 
sum, because thousands of buildings had to be torn down 
in order to make the fine broad avenues straight. Nothing 
was allowed to stand in the way of carrying out the plan. 
People who were disturbed in business naturally objected, 
but the city was nevertheless remodeled on a grand scale 
in order to promote the beauty of its plan and the con- 
venience of all the people, irrespective of the few. The 
great avenues centered in open spaces or places that were 
adorned with imposing monuments. From these may be 
seen the beautiful vistas stretching away for miles through 
the city. Paris remade, resembles Washington in its plan. 
But it cost an enormous amount of money to effect the 



14 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

change, while Washington simply grew along plans laid out 
for it. 

Vienna. — The capital of Austria has been made over 
within the last half century. It was formerly a walled city, 
but suburbs had grown up outside the walls of the city, and 
the part within the walls was badly congested, or crowded, 
and unsanitary. Just outside the walls was a moat and 
a strip of unoccupied territory left bare for military pur- 
poses. When the people and the government had resolved 
to remodel their city, the walls were thrown into the moat, 
the ground graded, and all was made into a magnificent 
circular street or ringstrasse, which extends entirely around 
the city. A small part of the open territory was cut up 
into streets and the lots sold for enough money to pay for 
all the magnificent improvements. The rest of the space 
was made into parks and sites for public buildings and 
upon them have been erected splendid structures, famous 
throughout the world for their beauty of architecture and 
fine location. The ringstrasse of Vienna is considered by 
many the finest street in the world. 

City Planning in America. — Almost the only city in 
America that lays claim to having been designed is Wash- 
ington. Everywhere men have been too busy laying up 
wealth for themselves to give attention to the health, 
beauty, and convenience of their cities, which should mean 
so much to every citizen. Chicago has only recently made 
a magnificent plan that it will take years to realize ; but 
when the plans are carried out, her citizens will have every 
reason to be proud of the improvement. Cleveland is 
also alive and working along this line. Millions of dollars 
have already been spent by the people of Cleveland to 
group their public buildings and to reclaim for their dwellers 
the noble water front along Lake Erie. 



CITY PLANNING 15 

Other cities, large and small, are agitating civic questions 
and considering what they ought to undertake. New- 
York has been busy wrecking buildings along some of the 
narrow, crooked streets, and cutting directly through a 
portion of the city to make room for the extension of its 
noble avenues. Millions of dollars have been spent on 
this excellent project. Baltimore has been working on 
the problem of its freight terminals, and has followed 
Chicago in appointing an eminent engineer to represent 
the citizens in helping to secure the proper plans and 
location. 

Importance of Adequate Plans. — It is not always 
possible to tell in advance how large a city will become. 
The usual danger is that the city plans are too small. 
London and Chicago, with their congestion of crowded 
tenements, are examples of cities that have grown up 
without plans to protect the citizens of the future. When 
the city does not grow under an orderly plan, the result is 
cramped and congested districts which are both incon- 
venient and unsanitary. If a city has allowed itself to 
reach this wretched condition, the sooner it sets to work 
to correct them by cutting new streets, widening old ones, 
and making parks and breathing places for the people, the 
better. We have seen that the longer these corrective 
measures are put off the more tremendous the cost of the 
change. 

Objects in City Planning. — In planning a city many 
considerations must be kept in mind. The health of the 
people who are to dwell in it and their comfort and con- 
venience must come first. It is of great importance that 
there is direct and easy passage from one part of the city 
to the other. The cost of transporting goods is enormously 
high in some cities, because of the inconvenience of the 



1 6 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

streets with regard to one another. There should be, if 
possible, one direct line from every outlying district to 
the business center. Beauty should also be considered, 
because a city ought to be pleasant to look upon. A public 
square with the public buildings artistically grouped about 
makes an attractive civic center. 

Laying out the City. — Importance of the Business Sec- 
tion. — It is not uncommon for a large city to have its 
business section inclosed in a square or quadrangle formed 
by four streets considerably wider than other streets, to 
accommodate the heavy traffic about the business district. 
However the business section maybe situated, there must 
be provision for reaching it quickly and directly from all 
parts of the city. This necessity, indeed, greatly deter- 
mines the city's growth. 

The Ground Plan. — Most cities in America have fol- 
lowed the checkerboard plan which William Penn used 
in designing Philadelphia. If the site of a city is level, 
this rectangular scheme is easily carried out. The chief 
objection to it is that only a very few of the streets lead 
directly to the business center. Upon these few streets 
there is, therefore, congestion of traffic and delay. From 
the outlying residence districts, instead of being able to 
go in a straight line to the heart of the city, people must 
go along two sides of a huge triangle to reach their business, 
and so they lose much time. 

Washington, as we have seen, has met this objection 
fairly well by her twenty-one diagonal streets, which fur- 
nish many sections of the city with direct routes of travel. 
There is, however, one objection to these diagonal streets. 
They cut through all the city blocks in their path, leaving 
many irregular, almost useless, pieces of land on the corners 
of the blocks. Such triangular pieces are not suitable 



CITY PLANNING 17 

for building, although the famous flatiron building of New 
York occupies such a corner. When a large city un- 
dertakes to provide enough diagonals to accommodate 
traffic, the number of these odd-shaped corners is very 
large. They may advantageously be made into grass plots 
with a fountain, or small parks with benches and shade 
trees. 

In foreign cities the tendency is to use more curved and 
diagonal streets. The ring street is very common and very 
beautiful. If the site of a city is hilly or is traversed by 
streams, curved or winding streets may prove very con- 
venient. Curved streets along water lines are very desir- 
able, and the curves are more graceful and beautiful than 
the straight lines. 

Perhaps the best plan of all would be to lay out a city like 
a spider's web, with the streets leading out of the center in 
all directions like the hub of a wheel, and with circular or 
ring streets crossing these and running entirely around the 
city. There should also be straight highways cut across 
the wheel at various points so that one may go directly 
from one side of town to the other. This does away with 
the many sharp angles made by the diagonal street in the 
checkerboard plan and it serves admirably the convenience 
of the people. 

City Streets. — The streets in the retail districts of a large 
city like Chicago or New York should be from 80 to 100 
feet wide, with smooth, quiet pavements. Such streets 
should be about equally divided into sidewalk space and 
roadway. Where the teaming is particularly heavy a 
little more than half of the street width should be given to 
roadway, and in this section the pavements should be of 
a kind to resist wear, even though they be noisy. 

On residence streets, because of lighter teaming, there 



i8 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 



is no need of the wider highway. A width of from twenty 
to thirty-six feet is sufficient. This does not mean that 
the street, as a whole, should be narrower ; but that more 
space should be given to parkways with grass, trees, and 

shrubs that furnish 
a playground for the 
children and a spot 
of recreation for all 
the residents. 

The avenues or 
traffic streets which 
carry through traffic 
from one part of the 
city to the other 
should not only be 
wide enough for 
double street car 
tracks, but must also 
be wide enough for 
the stream of vehi- 
cles moving on either 
side of the tracks to 
pass without inter- 
fering with one an- 
other. 

It is unpleasant 
for those bent on 
driving for pleasure 
to pass through the crowded business section where the 
streets are full of traffic and teams. This has been avoided 
in many cities by building circular boulevards or ring 
streets to pass entirely around the business section. Some 
cities have two or more of these circuits, at varying distances 




Broadway 



New York. A Busy Thorough- 
fare. 



CITY PLANNING 19 

from the center. Those designed chiefly for pleasure may 
connect the city's outlying parks. Other European cities 
besides Vienna were formerly encircled by fortification 
walls. In many cases, when the city outgrew these bounds 
the walls were torn down and the space left was made with 
little cost into a circular boulevard of great value and 
beauty. Such a boulevard serves the pleasure of thou- 
sands and thousands of people, providing as it does park- 
ways with grass, trees, and beautiful buildings in the closely 
built part of the city. 

Boulevards are handsome broad streets on which heavy 
traffic is forbidden. They are the avenues of fine dwellings 
with ample spaces ornamented with grass, flowers, and 
trees, and perhaps an occasional statue or fountain. The 
boulevards frequently connect the large city parks, and arc- 
made for pleasure driving and recreation. They help to 
beautify our cities and raise the ideals of the people. 

Cities that have few or no diagonal streets should cut 
them through even at a great expense, for they will soon 
repay the first cost. A great deal is being said now about 
the importance of ventilating a city well. Diagonal streets 
in connection with the others will give sweep to winds 
coming from any direction, and thus secure more frequent 
changes of air in the crowded districts. 

Civic Centers. — In every city of any considerable size 
there are a number of government buildings such as a court 
house, city hall, post office, and, in at least one city of every 
state, a state capitol. These and other public buildings 
that are put up in a substantial way should be grouped 
together in a central and convenient place, forming a civic 
center. This center should have plenty of space at the 
junction of some of the main streets and avenues. Here 
the city should attempt to show its individuality by grace- 



20 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

ful and imposing buildings, well-grouped and similar in 
workmanship, and so arranged as to create a pleasing har- 
mony of color and design. Surrounding the buildings 
should be flower gardens, trees, statues, and monuments. 
Broad avenues leading to this center would furnish a view 
to people miles away, instilling a pride and love for their 
beautiful city. 

Such a noble center had Rome in its majestic Forum and 
Athens in her glorious Acropolis. The grandeur of the 
Forum and the Acropolis still commands our admiration, 
and our architects go to these cities for many lessons in 
beauty. A civic center of this sort may unify the city by 
having parks, boulevards, harbors, railway terminals, and 
the like, all planned with reference to it. 

Social Centers. — Modern city planning places great 
stress on the civic and social centers, and many American 
cities are working out elaborate designs for them. Besides 
the main civic center there are also being created subordi- 
nate social centers for the various sections which make up 
a city. At some convenient point in each section are 
grouped the public and semipublic buildings that serve 
the neighborhood, such as the school, the fire station, the 
police station, church, social clubs, and the like. All these 
buildings are to be harmoniously planned for the conven- 
ience of the people and the beauty of the locality. 

Parks and Playgrounds. — In planning a city much atten- 
tion should be given to parks and playgrounds as open 
breathing places for the people. A community's first 
need is for numerous small parks well distributed over the 
city, so that the dwellers in any region may be able to 
reach at least one park easily and quickly. An ideal con- 
dition would be a small park or playground in walking 
distance of every home. This would enable both children 



CITY PLANNING 



21 



and parents to use the park daily instead of only on Sat- 
urdays and Sundays. It would also do away with the item 
of carfare, a bar to many. 

Large parks of a hundred acres are very desirable. They 
beautify a city, attract the right kind of citizens, and fur- 
nish means of education in the way of public gardens and 
museums. But the large parks mean very little to the 
poorer people who cannot afford time and carfare to visit 
them. The first object of a park is to promote public 
health by supplying open-air recreation ; so a number of 
smaller parks are to be preferred to one large one. 





■p 


- • 1? » y 1 ■ ;■ Ir 1 


■ If" 


: ~-v - k 









Pittsburgh. An Opportunity for a Pleasing Water Front. 



Water Fronts. — In all well-planned cities, like Paris and 
Berlin, every opportunity is taken to beautify water front- 
ages, such as rivers and lakes or the ocean shore. There 
is something soothing and pleasing in a water scene, and 
citizens have a right to such pleasure. Splendid bridges 
are built over the rivers, such as those spanning the Seine 
at Paris. Along the river banks on either side are fine 
drives and promenades adorned with trees, grass, and 
monuments. No city can afford to neglect its water front 



22 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

nor should water fronts be given over entirely to factories 
and industries. They should be made accessible and a 
means of recreation for every resident of the city. Water 
scenes belong to the people. 

City Zones. — In some German cities a zone system has 
been adopted. Under this system sections of the city called 
zones are set apart for certain uses and cannot be used for 
any other purpose. A certain zone is given over to factory 
purposes. All factories must be built in this particular 
zone and nowhere else in the city. Another zone is devoted 
to the uses of wholesale business, while another serves for 
residences, and for nothing but dwellings. This is a much 
safer plan than that followed in many of our American 
cities, where a man may build a beautiful residence and 
have no way of preventing the man who owns the lot next 
to him from putting a livery stable or a factory upon it. 

Every city ought at least to reserve suitable areas for 
factories where they will have every convenience of trans- 
portation and supply for their work and where they will 
create the least nuisance to the other business of the city 
as well as to the residence districts. 

Importance of Railroads. — Modern cities are largely 
influenced in their growth by good transportation both by 
water and by rail. Many cities have been made by rail- 
roads, others by good locations for the water-carrying 
trade. The town with the best and cheapest railroad 
service has an advantage over every other city because its 
merchants can do business more cheaply and more promptly. 
They can receive or ship out products more easily, and such 
an advantage attracts trade and merchants, thus bringing 
wealth to the city. 

Why City Planning Pays. — City planning is urgently 
needed for many reasons. It promotes trade by providing 



CITY PLANNING 23 

direct and easy ways for the extension and development 
of commerce ; it aids city growth by making it easier and 
cheaper to conduct all classes of business ; it increases and 
safeguards all property values by preventing the many 
evils of haphazard building ; it makes every citizen a more 
efficient and more effective worker by saving time- and 
money in the transit of goods and people ; and, above all, 
it assures to that city which adopts it a future citizenship 
or population sound in body, mind, and morals. 

Questions on the Text 

1. What bearing did the Boer War have on conditions in England's 
cities? 2. What building laws are enforced in European cities? 
3. How do certain cities control their new subdivisions? 4. Win- 
do our real estate men plan poorly? 5. What is it to design a city' 
6. Discuss the Washington plan. 7. What has Paris done to make 
a noted city? 8. What splendid plans did Vienna carry out? 
9. What American cities are now working out extensive plans for con- 
venience and beauty ? 10. What are the objects of city planning? 
11. Describe various general plans for the streets of a city. 1 2. What 
local conditions must be considered in adopting a plan? [3. What 
can be said in favor of ring streets? 14. Discuss width of streets. 
15. What advantages are afforded by diagonal streets? i(>. What 
are civic centers? 17. What ancient cities set fine examples ? iS. 
Discuss social centers. 19. Why should parks be provided ? 
20. Where should the smaller parks be placed? Why? 21. What 
is the zone system ? 

Questions on your Home City 

22. Have any well-arranged plans of improving your city been con- 
sidered ? 23. Do you have a civic center ? 24. If so, what buildings 
are located there ? 25. Are the buildings similar in design, or is each 
planned without reference to the others ? 26. Do you have diagonal 
streets? 27. What plans could you suggest for making your city 
more convenient, or more pleasing, or more healthful ? 



CHAPTER III 
CITY HEALTH 

Sanitation in Ancient Cities. — The cities of the Roman 
Empire made great strides, for those times, in matters 
of health and sanitation. They were provided with 
extensive city water systems which brought pure water 
in great aqueducts from far-off mountain streams. They 
drained swamps and put in large sewers to help keep the 
city dry, clean, and healthful. But after the Empire went 
to pieces the cities soon lost these healthful conditions. 

In the Later Centuries. — During the Middle Ages the 
cities of Europe were terrible places of filth and disease. 
The drinking water from wells that received surface drain- 
age was impure and full of germs. The streets were un- 
paved and muddy in wet weather. Besides, they were 
piled with refuse and rubbish, while the alleys were heaped 
with garbage. There were no sewers, and no attempt was 
made to keep the cities clean. Terrible plagues swept over 
the land frequently, sometimes destroying more than half 
the people in a few months. The ignorant people fled 
from the plague as from fire, but as many of them had 
already been exposed, they merely succeeded in spreading 
the disease. 

Modern Times. — The centuries following the Middle 
Ages slowly made progress toward better health condi- 
tions. But during only the last fifty years has there been 
marked headway. Modern cities the world over have ad- 
vanced rapidly in matters of health and sanitation. The 

24 



CITY HEALTH 25 

modern city is clean. To be sure, some are cleaner than 
others ; but compared with those of fifty years ago all are 
respectable. There are numerous reasons for this im- 
provement. 

The Death Rate in Cities. — It is said that the death 
rate of a city is a mark of its progress in civilization. By 
death rate is meant the number of deaths per one thousand 
inhabitants in a year. Twenty years ago a city was thought 
to have an unusual record if its death rate was as low as 
twenty per thousand. Now a rate of twenty per thousand 
is considered so high as to need explanation. In 191 2 
several large American cities had rates below fifteen per 
thousand. 

In the year 187 1 the city of Munich, Germany, had a 
death rate of forty-one per thousand. At that time the 
city had no water system and no sewer system connected 
with the houses. Water was obtained from shallow wells. 
And ordinary earth vaults or closets were in use. In 1873 
cholera swept over the city, increasing its death rate to 
forty-three per thousand. By the year 1908 the death 
rate of Munich had been reduced to 17.9 by checking pre- 
ventable diseases. Pulmonary tuberculosis had been cut 
down more than one half. There was even a better show- 
ing in some other diseases. 

How Science Prevents Contagion. — The dreadful epi- 
demics that formerly wrought havoc in cities have for the 
most part been conquered. Smallpox is a loathsome 
disease, and at one time it was one of the most frequent 
causes of death in large cities. In 1798 Edward Jenner 
discovered a method of vaccination against smallpox which 
was a great boon to the human race, as it checked the dis- 
ease. To-day people differ as to the need for vaccination, 
for our health departments have now facilities for dis- 



26 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

covering the disease early in its career ; and by separating 
patients from contact with other people, it is kept from 
spreading. 

About thirty-five years ago one of the greatest gifts 
ever bestowed upon mankind was contributed by Louis 
Pasteur of France. He discovered and made known to 
the world the fact that bacteria have a large part in causing 
many diseases. This discovery has entirely changed the 
theory and practice of medicine. By means of it many 
dire diseases have been conquered. 

Typhoid fever is being reduced since it has been found 
that the germ which causes it is spread by means of foul 
drinking water. Cities are looking after their water supply 
more carefully. It has also been found that cholera, while 
quite a different malady from typhoid, is spread in practi- 
cally the same way. Thus the worst of the old plagues 
have been conquered through the discovery of their causes. 
Cases of the " great white plague," or tuberculosis, have 
been greatly reduced in number. Those cases that are 
discovered early are being cured. Cancer has not yet 
been overcome, but that is probably only a question of 
time. In 1894 an antitoxin was discovered for diphtheria, 
another of the so-called fatal diseases. This antitoxin has 
greatly reduced the number of deaths from diphtheria. 
Since the mosquito has been convicted as the chief agent 
in spreading yellow fever, this troublesome pest is being 
scientifically banished from cities and homes. War is now 
waged against the common house fly. 

Modern Sanitation. — The death rate does not depend 
upon the size of the city. London, the world's metropolis, 
has a death rate of only fourteen per thousand, a lower rate 
than most smaller cities. The death rate does depend 
partly upon the draining and housing conditions, the general 



CITY HEALTH 27 

city cleanliness, the water supply, and the air. These, 
in turn, depend upon the general city management and the 
habits of the people. 

Drainage and Cleanliness. — Our cities have all recently 
been provided with better sewers. At first sewers were 
merely drainage pipes which kept the ground from becom- 
ing wet and full of puddles by carrying off surface water. 
Since then, sewers have been connected with the waterworks 
system so as to carry off the waste water from sinks, wash- 
tubs, and the like. Still more recently sewers have been 
used to carry off the flushings and human waste from the 
water closets that have been installed in the homes. It 
is certain that these improvements in sanitation have had a 
helpful influence on living conditions and the death rate 
has been reduced thereby. 

There are many different methods of disposing of the 
various kinds of household waste. Some cities collect 
ashes, garbage, and rubbish and burn them all together ; 
others collect them and destroy them separately. But no 
matter how it is done the up-to-date city is disposing of 
its waste, and the result is cleanliness and improved health. 

The old rough pavements of cobblestone of former years 
are giving place to smoother surfaces of asphalt, smooth 
stone blocks, and wood or brick that can be washed as well 
as swept. The old practice was to clean the streets only 
when dirt and rubbish had piled up so much as to hinder 
traffic. Main streets were cleaned about once a week and 
others once or twice a month. In wet weather a layer of mud 
covered the pavements and in dry weather the dust, laden 
with germs, was on windy days intolerable. It swept into 
homes and stores and was breathed into everybody's lungs. 

In well-kept cities of to-day there is but little mud or 
dust. The streets of the business section of a city are 



28 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

washed every day or night and a large force of men are 
kept at work during the day cleaning them. Keeping the 
streets clean is the first step toward municipal cleanliness. 
The next is to secure clean houses and clean yards. 

Pure Water. — All modern cities now have a pure water 
supply, and plenty of it, ready to be turned on at any time. 
Besides furnishing pure water for drinking and cooking, 
such a supply greatly encourages cleanliness, and thereby 
improves the health of the community. 

Food Inspection. — In order that a city population may 
keep well they must have wholesome food. The modern 
city tries to insure this. While the purchase and sale of 
foods are dealings between individuals, the city tries to 
secure for its people good transportation and pure food. 
Most up-to-date cities have laboratories in which foods of 
all kinds may be tested. When dealers are discovered sell- 
ing goods that do not measure up to the rules of the health 
department, the men are fined or otherwise punished. 
Meats, milk, butter, and cheese are carefully inspected by 
city officers, and whatever is found to be unfit for use is 
not permitted to be sold. Foods that are liable to spoil 
quickly are kept in cold storage. And ice is used in the 
homes in hot weather to help preserve foods. This use of 
refrigeration is a means of the greatest importance in pre- 
serving health. 

In every health report of a city like Chicago, Philadelphia, 
or New York several milk dealers are reported as fined for 
selling milk with too little butter fat in it ; others for not 
keeping their quarters clean. Bakers have been fined for 
not keeping their bread properly protected or for using un- 
sanitary rooms for handling food supplies. Wherever hotels, 
restaurants, soda fountains, and ice cream factories are 
found violating health rules they are liable to a heavy fine. 



CITY HEALTH 29 

Ventilation. — One of the great problems that American 
health officers are trying to work out is the task of seeing 
that people have pure air to breathe, especially in public 
places. The time will come when we shall require every 
building, whether a business establishment or a home, to 
be properly furnished with a method of regularly changing 
the air. The places that should be attacked first are the 
closed street cars and the small theaters and picture shows. 
In any large city there are great numbers of these unventi- 
lated places. Smaller towns often fail to provide for the 
forcing of fresh air in and out of their schoolrooms. Be- 
cause it costs a little money to run a power fan in a school, 
it is frequently not provided. The moving picture shows 
are opened in all sorts of buildings, where they are allowed 
to operate, and so spread disease germs through their foul air. 

Breathing foul air weakens the health and invites all 
manner of disease, but the chief one to be dreaded is tuber- 
culosis, or the " great white plague." More than 150,000 
die annually in our country from this dread enemy. We are 
told that a million tuberculosis victims are all the time 
spreading the dangerous germ of tuberculosis in schools, 
theaters, and in every public place. 

The unventilated theater is said to be little if any better 
than the Black Hole of Calcutta. Samples of air were 
recently taken from two theaters, one of which was well 
ventilated. The air of the ventilated theater yielded upon 
test five colonies of bacteria, while that of the theater that 
had no ventilation showed tw r o hundred and fifty colonies. 
The chances of picking up infection were about fifty times 
greater in the unventilated building. 

Contagion Checked. — Careful precautions are now being 
taken in the modern city against the spread of contagious 
diseases. Materials or clothing in contact with persons 



30 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

afflicted are disinfected or burned, and the sick are iso- 
lated or quarantined. Common drinking cups are giving 
place to individual cups or to the sanitary fountains. 
Communion cups and common towels are being banished. 
Hereby the danger of contagion in public schools and in 
large factories, centers for the spread of contagious diseases, 
is greatly reduced. 

City Health Departments. — The modern city health 
departments are doing a splendid work in saving human 
life. They are reducing the number of deaths from pre- 
ventable diseases. They are enforcing the city's laws or 
ordinances against dirt and against the selling of impure 
foods ; they are inspecting dairies, milk bottling plants, 
groceries, drug stores, and other shops, and in a score of 
ways they are improving the public health. Every citizen 
should give his heartiest support to the rules and regula- 
tions of the health department. 

Questions on Text 

i. What means were taken in ancient Roman cities to safeguard 
health? 2. Describe living conditions in cities of the Middle Ages. 
3. What is meant by the death rate? 4. How was smallpox con- 
quered? 5. What service to mankind was rendered by Pasteur? 
6. What is diphtheria antitoxin? 7. What means have been used 
to reduce the death rate ? 8. What is the purpose of food inspection ? 
9. Who are the people most often found violating health laws ? 10. 
What are contagious diseases ? 11. What means are used to prevent 
their spreading? 12. What are some of the duties of modern health 
departments ? 

Questions on your Home City 

13. Are the theaters and moving picture shows in your city well 
ventilated? 14. How do you ventilate your home? 15. Name 
some health laws or ordinances of your city. 16. What is the death 
rate of your city? 17. Are spoiled or dirty foods sold in your 
community ? 



CHAPTER IV 
THE CITY WATER SUPPLY 

Importance of the Water Supply. — The first great need 
of man for sustaining life is food, but he cannot live long 
on food alone, for he must drink even more often than he 
eats. Most of the livable places of the earth have plenty 
of water, but in these days man is not willing to take the 
time to go to a stream or a spring every time he wants a 
cup of water. He must have a supply convenient so that, 
by simply turning a faucet, he may have an abundance in 
the kitchen, in the bath, and on his lawn. Another im- 
portant consideration is that the water he uses for drink- 
ing and cooking purposes shall be pure and wholesome. 
It has taken a good many years to master all the diffi- 
culties which have been encountered in working out the 
problem of a good and convenient water supply for cities 
and towns. Many cities are still puzzling over it. 

A system of public waterworks is now thought to be 
necessary to every city and village. Not only is water 
needed in the home for drinking, cooking, washing, and 
cleaning ; but it is needed for fire protection, for sprinkling 
streets, and flushing sewers to keep them clean. Water is 
also used in parks and on private lawns. In addition, 
nearly every city has a factory of some sort, perhaps many 
factories, where water is converted into steam to run ma- 
chinery. Sometimes it is used in the products made in the 
factory. 

For use in the home, water should be clear and pure, 

31 



32 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

with a pleasant taste. When used to feed boilers, it ought 
to be free from lime and other minerals that form crusts 
and thus do injury to the boiler. Soft water is best for 
this use, because it is almost free from such minerals. For 
fire protection, any kind of water supply will answer, pro- 
viding it is not so dirty as to ruin the goods and furnishings 
in the burning buildings. Only a very small fraction, 
about a hundredth of the water pumped by the water- 
works, is used for drinking and cooking ; and this portion 
intended for home use is all that really needs to be ab- 
solutely pure ; but it costs so much to support two systems 
of waterworks, one for drinking and one for other uses, 
that most cities have only the one supply of water. 

Where the Water Problem is still Unsolved. — Only 
the civilized peoples of to-day have attempted to solve 
the water problem. The inhabitants of many lands have 
made very little progress in the matter. In the smaller 
towns of Korea the citizens get water from wells. It is 
carried from house to house by men or boys who make 
this their business. Each carrier has two large buckets 
which are fastened to a framework resting on the shoulders. 
Every family pays so much a day or a month for their 
supply of water, and it costs a great deal. Family wash- 
ings are taken to the river or creek. In the cities of India 
water carrying is as much a trade as that of a blacksmith 
is with us ; and the sons of water carriers must take up the 
same occupation as their fathers. 

Along the streets, in some countries, men carry water 
in goatskins on their backs. In Tripoli water is put in 
barrels, and camels are made to kneel at the wells while 
the barrels are slung across their humps, one on each side. 
In other countries, like Palestine, girls and women carry 
water in jars upon their heads, They often carry jars 



THE CITY WATER SUPPLY 33 

holding three or four gallons of water. Balancing these 
heavy vessels upon their heads, they walk along without 
even touching them with their hands. 

The Problem of Primitive Man. — In the days when 
men dwelt in trees and in caves, they always chose their 
home near a spring or a river, because there was a time when 
they had no vessels in which to carry water, and it was 
risky to live too far from the water supply when the forests 
swarmed with dangerous wild beasts. So people chose 
their homes in river valleys or on the hills close by. Per- 
haps gourds and clamshells were the first drinking cups. 
Later, a leather bag was used for carrying water. 

When the time came that men were unwilling to go to a 
river or a spring for water, they began to dig wells. These 
shallow wells may be found to-day among many savage 
tribes. They are only a few feet deep, scooped out of the 
ground in moist places. Joseph's well at Cairo is an ex- 
ample of the progress made by the ancient Egyptians in 
making wells. It shows remarkable skill, for it is dug to a 
depth of nearly three hundred feet in solid rock. The 
water is raised in buckets on an endless chain operated by 
mule power. Many ages ago the Chinese dug wells much 
as we do to-day. Some of these were a quarter of a mile 
deep. The ancient peoples, especially in Egypt and India, 
learned to build great reservoirs for storing water in the dry 
seasons. 

Roman Aqueducts. — The Romans built the most re- 
markable water supply systems of all ancient peoples. For 
a long time the city of Rome obtained its water from the 
Tiber River, and from other streams and springs near by. 
But the water from these rivers in time became so polluted 
with sewage that disease frequently broke out in the city. 
Then a water supply was sought from the distant moun- 

D 



34 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

tains. The Romans constructed long conduits or aque- 
ducts to carry water. They were great stone troughs 
often built high above the ground on huge pillars of masonry. 

These aqueducts sometimes ran through hills in long 
tunnels. The lines of stone arches that carried the huge 
troughs across the river valleys are the wonder and the ad- 
miration of the world to-day. At last Rome had fourteen 
great aqueducts which, if placed end to end, would reach 
359 miles. These furnished, in the days of Constantine, 
926 public baths, 121 2 public fountains, and 247 reservoirs 
scattered about the city. Water was not piped into the 
homes of the Romans. They obtained it at one of the 
many public fountains. Even the smaller cities of the 
Roman Empire had their waterworks, some of which have 
been repaired and are in use to-day. 

In the Dark Ages. — After the German barbarians 
destroyed the Roman Empire, the aqueducts were neg- 
lected and fell into disuse. Townspeople went back to 
the old way of using water from the nearest river. During 
the Dark Ages that followed, dreadful pestilences swept 
over Europe, due, no doubt, to the use of impure water 
from the rivers made foul with sewage. 

Gradual Improvement. — After nearly a thousand years 
of ignorance, disease, and pestilence, the cities of Europe 
began to improve their water supply. Paris built, about 
the year 1200, a small aqueduct that furnished one quart 
of water a day to each citizen. Nothing further was done 
for three hundred years. London also built a tiny aque- 
duct. Then in time pumps came into use. 

London and Paris built huge pumps on their neighboring 
rivers and operated them by water power. Still for two 
hundred years longer the people of Paris had but a little 
more than a half gallon of water a day for each citizen. 



THE CITY WATER SUPPLY 35 

We can appreciate how insufficient a half gallon a day is, 
when we are told that many cities to-day furnish two 
hundred or even three hundred gallons a day to each person. 
The steam engine later took the place of wind and water 
power, and was hitched to great pumps to supply cities 
with water. 

'The Distribution of Water. — Now came the question 
of how water was to be carried to the people. Should 
they be compelled to walk long distances to reservoirs and 
carry it home in buckets? This problem was at last solved 
by laying water pipes underneath the streets to each house. 
For many years the larger pipes were of wood made by 
boring out logs to a diameter of six or seven inches. In 
London, as many as ten of these wooden pipes were laid 
side by side to form a single main. Chicago's early water 
pipes also were of wood. Cast-iron pipes, however, came 
into general use about the year 1800. 

Great pipes called mains now lead out from the city water- 
works through the chief streets several feet below the sur- 
face, so that they will not freeze in cold weather. From 
these mains smaller pipes lead off under the side streets, 
and from these pipes a still smaller one leads underground 
into each building and home. These pipes are usually of 
iron, and if all the pipes in any one city were placed end 
to end, the line would be many miles in length (p. 56). 

When water was first supplied to each house it was 
thought to be impossible to furnish a pressure all the time. 
Water was turned on for only a few hours a day, and the 
consumers were obliged to draw off a supply to last them 
for twenty-four hours. It was less than forty years ago 
that the people of London began to have a continuous 
supply. This was much needed for fire fighting and for 
keeping the city clean, as well as for household convenience. 



36 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

Waterworks in America. — Boston was the first Ameri- 
can city to grapple with the water problem. There was 
built an aqueduct that brought water from certain springs 
located higher than the city, so that the water flowed 
into the pipes without pumping. About the time of the 
Revolution, other cities here began to use iron pumps to 
raise water to a sufficient height. The first steam 
engine for this use in America was employed in Phila- 
delphia in the year 1800. It is now rare to find in our 
country a village of two thousand inhabitants that has 
not its own public water supply. 

Present Methods of Supplying Water. — It will interest 
you to know how the various towns force water into the 
houses. There are many different methods. If a city is 
so located that it can have a reservoir on a near-by hill 
higher than the roofs of all the buildings, then water will 
run of itself into every faucet and the fire hose will shoot 
streams of water over the tallest roofs, because they are 
lower than the reservoir. The water in the reservoir 
creates a pressure that forces a stream of water into the 
pipes of every building in the town. 

But how do cities in flat,- level regions get a pressure on 
their water supply? They must either build reservoirs 
in distant mountains which are higher than the city and 
pipe it down to their homes, or the city must build a huge 
standpipe or tank, placed on masonry, high above the tallest 
buildings. By keeping this high tank filled with water by 
means of monster pumps, the pressure of the water in the 
tank drives the supply into the street mains and forces it 
into the houses. Nearly every city that depends upon 
pumping has some sort of hilltop reservoir or a standpipe 
to furnish the sudden large demands for water for fires. 
The standpipe also furnishes a supply of water during the 



THE CITY WATER SUPPLY 



37 




Mavwood (111.). Waterworks showing Standpipe. 



night, so that the pumps may be shut down and the fires 
banked in the evening, giving the engineer a rest and saving 
coal. Chicago and other large cities have no reservoirs 
or standpipes to furnish pressure. They depend upon im- 
mense pumps, which must be kept going day and night. 

Not only does the laying of the pipes beneath the streets 
cost a great deal of money, but the reservoir and the stand- 
pipe add much more to the expense of waterworks. Then 
there is costly machinery to pump the water ; and electric 
power or fuel to operate the machinery. Last of all, the 
engineers who take care of the waterworks plant must 
have a living salary. All this expense is met by selling 
city bonds and by putting a tax of a few dollars a year on 
every family that is supplied with city water. 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 




Pure Water for Birmingham (Ala.) 



Most cities own their own waterworks. They employ 
engineers and usually the water is furnished to the people 
for just about what it costs the city to run the plant. In 
other places private companies have built the waterworks. 
They have been given permission by the city government 
to run their pipes through the city streets, such rights to 
continue for a term of years. Private companies usually 
charge higher rates for water, as they naturally wish to 
make money above their expenses. 

Sewage in Water. — Water may look clear and pure and 
yet be dangerous to health. The thing that most often pol- 
lutes the water supply is sewage. Sewage has in it millions 
of microbes or bacteria. Some of them, when taken in drink- 
ing water, cause typhoid fever ; and others, cholera. Typhoid 
fever is one of the leading causes of death in our country 
and is most often contracted by drinking impure water. 



THE CITY WATER SUPPLY 



39 




Reservoir and Pumping Station. 



A large number of our cities and villages dump their 
sewage into convenient rivers, and the towns farther down 
the stream use the polluted water. These cities, in turn, 
discharge their sewage and other refuse into the same 
stream. Rivers will purify themselves if the water is 
allowed to run for many miles without receiving fresh quan- 
tities of sewage, but cities are growing up closer and closer 
together, and the water becomes so full of poison that 
epidemics of typhoid fever break out at the same time in a 
number of towns located on the same stream. In many 
parts of Germany the river water is of unusual purity, 
because the city governments have very strict laws about 
dumping sewage ; there is seldom a case of typhoid. 

Sources of Water Supply.— Springs. — The best sources 
of pure water are springs or wells driven deep into the 
earth. The city of Vienna, in Austria, has at its feet a 



40 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

mighty river, the second largest in Europe. But Vienna 
was unwilling to trust the health of its people to the 
Danube water. Millions of dollars were spent in building 
a sixty-mile aqueduct which brings pure water from springs 
in the far-off mountains. The pressure from the springs at 
such a height saves the expense of pumping. 

Wells. — There are many cities in our country that have 
this advantage of pure spring water without pumping, but 
some of these places have grown so marvelously that the 
springs fail to furnish them enough water, and other sources 
are sought for. Smaller cities and villages frequently get 
their water from deep wells, because water obtained in this 
way is almost as pure and good as spring water, except that 
it is so hard and full of lime that people must use a great 
deal of soap or water softener when washing with it. Aside 
from this disadvantage, well water has to be pumped, an 
added expense. 

Our wells of to-day are different from those of long ago. 
Instead of digging a big, round, shallow hole in the ground 
and walling it up with brick or stone, we use machinery to 
bore a small, very deep hole, only a few inches across. 
Such wells are driven deep into the earth through various 
layers of rock until a vein of good water is met. As the 
hole is bored, an iron pipe or tubing just fitting the hole 
is driven down to keep the earthy sides from caving in 
and also to make sure that the water will come up clear 
and free from dirt. Some of the bored wells go down a 
half mile into the ground. There is one near Leipzig, 
Germany, that is over a mile deep. 

In drilling deep wells, we bore through layers of dense 
rock that will not allow water to pass through them. Next 
to these layers of dense rock, perhaps, are spongelike layers, 
porous and full of water which has soaked from a higher 



THE CITY WATER SUPPLY 41 

level, for the layers of rock are sometimes tilted or sloping. 
In such cases when the drill strikes the porous rock, the 
water gushes up with great force many feet in the air, as 
though it were just freed from a prison. These spouting 
wells are called artesian wells, after Artois in France, where 
such drilled wells were first made. Few wells, however, are 
artesian, but require large pumps to draw the water from 
the depths of the earth. 

A few large cities, like Indianapolis, obtain enough water 
from deep wells. Indianapolis has bored many wells 
three hundred feet deep or more, each ten inches in diameter, 
through the layer of limestone beneath the city. From 
these wells the city receives many millions of gallons of 
water each day. It is always pure and wholesome, but, 
of course, it is hard water. 

The reason it is usually impossible to supply a large city 
with water from wells, is that when many wells are sunk 
in the same region, the water is pumped out of the earth 
faster than it soaks in from rains ; and with so many wells 
feeding from the same rock layers, the supply is not enough 
for a large need. 

Lake Water. — Therefore most of the large cities must 
look either to lakes or to rivers for their water supply. 
Lakes usually furnish a purer water than rivers, because 
they are less likely than rivers to become contaminated 
with sewage. If the lake is in a mountainous country, 
the water often runs down hill to the city, and there is 
no expense for pumping. Manchester in England has 
purchased a lake a hundred miles away, from which water 
flows through great stone troughs to the city. Glasgow, 
Scotland, might have plenty of water of a sort close at 
home, but the city purchased for its water supply Loch 
Katrine, thirty miles away. 



42 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 



The custom of using lake water for city supply is very 
popular in the United States. This is especially true in 
the Great Lake region, and is true everywhere along 
watersheds where lakes abound. Since many of our lakes 
are not high above sea level, pumping is usually necessary. 
When a city like Chicago or Cleveland stands on the edge 
of the lake and discharges refuse and sewage into it, the 




The Chicago Drainage Canal. 



intake for the water supply must be some distance from 
shore, at least several miles out. 

As Chicago grew from a frontier town to a great city, 
the lake water became so contaminated with sewage that 
something had to be done. The city had been dumping 
the sewage into the Chicago River, which took it into the 
lake. Then the city undertook to change the course of 
the Chicago River by deepening its bed so that instead of 
flowing into the lake it would flow away from it. Across 



THE CITY WATER SUPPLY 43 

the low divide between the Chicago River and the Illinois, 
a great drainage canal was dug joining the two streams. 
Now the sewage of Chicago, instead of being sent into Lake 
Michigan, is carried into the Illinois River and by it into 
the Mississippi. In this way the lake water is left pure, 
and the death rate in Chicago has been lowered. 

River Water. — While some cities are securing water 
from springs, lakes, and wells, the greater number are de- 
pendent upon rivers for their supply. This method pre- 
sents two problems besides the necessity of pumping. One 
trouble is that river water is usually turbid, or muddy, 
especially after rains, and this mud or silt needs to be re- 
moved. The other task is to filter out the dangerous 
bacteria which come from the sewage of other towns along 
the course of the river. 

Purification. — One method of removing the mud or silt 
is by providing huge settling tanks, or reservoirs, in which 
the water is stored for a long enough time to allow the 
sediment in the roily water to settle to the bottom. A way 
to get rid of the sediment quickly without keeping it long 
in the settling tank, is to mix in the water lime and sul- 
phate of iron or alum. These minerals gather or collect 
the particles of silt, making them settle more quickly. 
This process of settling the sediment of water is called 
sedimentation, and nearly all cities that use river water 
have adopted it in some form. 

Bacteria are removed from water chiefly by filtering or 
straining it. This is ordinarily done by passing the water 
supply through three or four feet of sand, which removes 
the bacteria and sends the water on pure and safe. Each 
grain of sand is said to have upon it many harmless bacteria, 
and they soon make way with the dangerous bacteria, 
either by killing them or by using up the food upon which 



44 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

they live. Filtering water is a rather expensive process, 
but more and more cities are adopting it. 

The water for the city of Washington is brought from the 
Great Falls of the Potomac through an aqueduct to a big 
reservoir. From the reservoir the supply passes to be 
filtered into twenty-nine great chambers underground. 
These chambers are made of concrete, and their floors are 
covered with four feet of sand and gravel. When the 
water flows into these sand-bottomed chambers it passes 
slowly down through the sand, which acts like a strainer 
in removing the dangerous bacteria. Then the purified 
water goes into another big reservoir, from which it is 
pumped to the city mains. Each chamber will filter three 
million gallons of water a day. 

The sand filter takes from water its impurities, so after 
a great amount of water has passed through, the filter 
becomes clogged. Then the water supply is turned off 
while the filter is washed and cleaned. This is usually 
done by machinery which forces water through the filters 
from below upward while the sand is stirred thoroughly 
all the time. The unclean water is thrown out and after 
the sand has settled back in its bed, the filter is ready to 
work again. Where water is forced through the sand 
filters in great quantities they must be washed two or three 
times a day. But if the sand filters are very large, covering 
part of an acre, and the water is allowed to pass through 
them very slowly, they do not need to be washed so often. 
Perhaps only once a week, or in some cases once each month. 

Brooklyn secures a great part of its water from wells 
driven in coarse sand and gravel, which act as a filter for 
the water, sending it up pure. Along the Ohio River some 
cities have put down on the sandy shore, or at the edge of 
sand islands, huge steel tanks closed at the top and per- 



THE CITY WATER SUPPLY 45 

forated in the bottom. The only way water can get into 
these tanks is by passing down through several feet of sand 
and gravel outside to the bottom of the tank. The water 
passes readily through this sand filter and then through 
the perforated bottom of the tanks, keeping them full of 
pure water. To the top of each of these tanks is attached 
a pipe through which the pure water is pumped to the city 
reservoirs. 

Waste of the Water Supply. - The task of filtering 
millions of gallons of water for a large city every day is 
stupendous, to say nothing of the cost. Many citizens 
waste such quantities of water that it has sometimes been 
found necessary to pump three hundred gallons a day for 
each man, woman, and child. Before the water used by 
each family was measured by a water meter, people were 
very careless about wasting it. They allowed toilets and 
faucets to remain out of repair for a long time, and per- 
mitted faucets to run at night to keep the water pipes from 
freezing. There was no end to the amount of water wasted. 
In some places it was found that half the quantity pumped 
was allowed to waste in this useless fashion. The expense 
of pumping this extra amount of water added to the tax. 
and careful persons had to help pay for what the careless 
ones wasted. 

Then a water meter was put in the house of each con- 
sumer. If he uses more than a fixed amount, he pays extra 
for it. Now cities that use water meters find that in many 
cases fifty gallons of water a day for each person is all that 
is needed. This has so reduced the cost of pumping that 
many towns are able to afford filters because of the moder- 
ate amount used. Filtering will soon be employed in 
every city that depends upon river water. In Germany 
the law requires all cities using river or surface water to 



46 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

filter it. This is why there are so few cases of typhoid 
fever in European cities as compared with ours. 

New York's Water Supply. — New York City has a re- 
markable water plant. Many years ago the city built a 
great dam across Croton River to store up the flood waters 
of the winter season. This dam now holds back a large 
body of water which is known as Croton Lake. From this 
lake an aqueduct leads to the city. But as the city grew, 
larger aqueducts were built, and at last Croton Lake would 
not furnish the supply of water needed. Then the city 
bought all the lands that drained into Croton River and 
dammed up the tributary streams, making several smaller 
lakes that are used to feed Croton Lake in dry weather. 

Still the city of New York was in danger of running short 
of water. So the authorities went far up into the Catskill 
mountains a hundred miles from the city and built the 
largest reservoir for city water supply in America. Ashokan 
Reservoir will hold billions of gallons of water; and, like 
Croton Lake, it drains a wide area, receiving water from 
several small rivers that may also be dammed up when there 
is need for a greater supply. The reservoir will hold enough 
to supply greater New York for fifty days. 

Connecting the Ashokan Reservoir with greater New 
York City is an enormous aqueduct tunnel one hundred 
and eleven miles long. It extends from Esopus to Brooklyn 
and Staten Island. Through most of its length the tunnel 
runs from 400 to 700 feet underground. In one place, 
where it passes under the Hudson River, it drops to a 
depth of 1200 feet below the surface. For nearly eighteen 
miles it was blasted through solid rock. It is by far the 
longest and deepest water tunnel in the world. Except 
the Panama Canal, the tunnel is said to be the greatest 
engineering feat in history. It cost more than 150 million 



THE CITY WATER SUPPLY 



47 




48 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

dollars, and nearly 300 human lives ; for there were many 
accidents in the underground blasting. 

How Los Angeles and San Francisco Solve the Problem. — 
Los Angeles has built a wonderful aqueduct far up among 
the Sierras, to secure pure water from a river that is fed 
by mountain streams. The aqueduct, 226 miles long, 
would reach nearly across the state of Ohio. It has 151 
tunnels, the longest of which is the " Elizabeth," which is 
bored five miles through solid granite near the top of the 
Coast Range mountains. Then it crosses a deep canon 
through an enormous iron siphon or pipe. It passes through 
mountains and across deserts to reach the city. There are 
five great storage reservoirs to hold back a supply of water 
for the dry season. 

San Francisco has been in need of a larger water supply, 
and the city sought permission to build a great reser- 
voir far away in the beautiful Yosemite valley. Many 
citizens throughout the country were for a time opposed 
to this, because they feared the magnificent scenery of 
this national park would be spoiled by the plans of the 
waterworks. But after plans had been carefully prepared 
that would not mar the beauty of the park, Congress 
granted this privilege, and the western metropolis will 
shortly have her need supplied. 

Questions on the Text 

1. What are some of the uses of water in a city? 2. Why should 
city water be pure ? 3. Describe the method of getting good water in 
Palestine. 4. What were Roman aqueducts? 5. Describe Paris's 
first waterworks. 6. How did the invention of the steam pump help ? 
7. What kind of pipes were first used to distribute water? 8. What 
was "part time" water supply? 9. How did Boston's first water- 
works operate? 10. What are the advantages of standpipes? 11. 
How are public waterworks paid for ? 12. Name some cities that use 



THE CITY WATER SUPPLY 



49 




A section of the Los Angeles Aqueduct, showing a portion of the nine-mile 

siphon. 



5 o CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

spring water. 13. What can you say about deep-well water? 14. 
What arc artesian wells? 15. What is the Chicago drainage canal 
and why built ? 16. Why should some water be filtered? 17. De- 
scribe a filter. 18. Some cities have natural filters, how do they oper- 
ate? iq. Why are water meters used? 20. Describe New York 
City's water supply. 

Questions on your Home City 

21. Describe your city's waterworks. 22. How does your city 
secure water pressure ? 23. Does your city own its own waterworks ? 
24. What is the annual cost of city water for your home ? 25. Can 
you read a water meter ? 26. Does your city need to filter its water ? 
27. Why or why not? 28. Do other cities contaminate your water 
supply? 29. Find out from your health officer how many deaths 
occur annually in your city, due to typhoid. 



CHAPTER V 
DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE 

The Need of Drainage and Sewerage. — In order that 
cities may be healthful places in which to live, it is neces- 
sary to drain them properly. The waste from all places 
using city water must be carried away. The rain water 
that falls in the city must also be carried off promptly ; 
for if it is allowed to stand on the surface, it will cause much 
inconvenience, and possibly disease. Poor drainage will 
make cellars damp and unheal thful. 

Besides the surface water, kitchen refuse, grease, soap, 
and human waste, which are called sewage, are even more 
likely to breed disease. The sewage very soon gives off a 
poisonous gas commonly called sewer gas. If this poisonous 
gas escapes into cellars, it gradually passes through all parts 
of the house, and may cause illness of various sorts. Sew- 
age is the chief means of spreading typhoid fever by con- 
taminating the milk and water supply. 

Sewerage Problems. — The first object in planning a 
sewerage system is to remove sewage wastes promptly. 
For this purpose the city streets must be underlaid with a 
network of pipes quite as extensive as those of the water- 
works system. By this plan the sewage is carried through 
the pipe system to some point beyond the city limits, where 
it is discharged into a river or lake. 

Carrying off the sewage is only half the task, for in order 
to be safe, it should be purified or disposed of in a safe and 
inexpensive manner. Most American cities merely dump 

51 



52 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

their sewage into a river or lake without purifying it, but 
the time is coming when such disposal of sewage will no 
longer be tolerated, because it pollutes the water supply of 
other cities and towns on the same body of water. Cer- 
tain river cities in Illinois that are suffering from foul 
water and bad odors are now trying to force the towns up- 
stream to cease turning their unpurined sewage into the 




Building a Sewer by Machinery. 

river. These cases, in the form of a lawsuit, have been 
taken before a court. 

The Two Systems of Sewerage. — There are two ways 
of taking care of the storm water and sewage of a city, 
town, or village. One is the separate system, which pro- 
vides one set of pipes called storm sewers, for surface water, 



DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE 53 

and another called sanitary sewers for the liquid house 
waste, or sewage. The other is the combined system, 
which carries off both rain water and sewage in one ar- 
rangement of underground pipes. 

The Separate System. — In the separate system the 
sanitary sewers collect all water that is made impure by 
the various uses in the home. Cast-iron pipes are used 
for this system because they have tight joints. This pipe 
line is carried quite beyond the city limits to some safe 
place of discharge, or sewage disposal station. The 
sewage from houses runs in about the same volume all 
day, and is about the same in amount as the water that is 
furnished by the waterworks. So sanitary sewer pipes 
need not be large because of this regular and continual 
flow, and all the sewage may be readily purified before being 
turned into a stream. 

The other drain or storm sewer carries only rain water, 
chiefly from roofs and streets ; but as storm water is less 
dangerous to health than house sewage, the pipes need 
not be water tight and they may safely flow into some 
near-by stream or river. Because the joints are not tight, 
the underground water that has soaked down through the 
gardens and lawns seeps into the storm sewer, and in this 
way the entire district is drained. Storm sewers need to 
be very large to carry off heavy rainfalls quickly. If they 
are less than thirty inches in diameter, they are made of 
vitrified clay pipes. Larger sizes are made of brick, stone, 
or concrete. 

The Combined System. — The sewer pipes of the com- 
bined system must be water tight ; and because of storm 
water they must be very large. But if they are large 
enough to take care of the heaviest rainfalls in a few hours, 
they are much too large for the best sewage service in dry 



54 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 





m 







Sewage Disposal Plant, 



seasons. When a small, shallow, sluggish stream of sewage 
flows through these large sewers, solid matter is apt to 
accumulate because the flow is not deep enough. Then 
a bad odor or sewer gas is created in the pipes. On the 
other hand, if combined sewers are too small, or if they have 
too little slope, or fall, they are liable to back up into the 
basements of houses during heavy storms. The combined 
sewers have the advantage of being thoroughly flushed or 
cleaned with every storm without cost to the city, while 
the separate systems for sewage must be flushed with city 
water. Combined sewers are sometimes made egg-shaped 



DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE 



55 




Baltimore — Settling Tanks. 



Courtesy of Sewerage Commission, Baltimore 



instead of round, with the small curve below so as to make 
a tiny dry-weather stream deep enough to carry away all 
its solid matter. 

The combined system of sewers has been in common use 
for many years. It is found in nearly all the large cities 
of Europe and America. Since the time has come, how- 
ever, that cities must consider purifying their sewage be- 
fore discharging it into a river or lake, the separate systems 
have now become more popular and desirable. The large 
cities that have sewage purification can only take care of 
the dry- weather flow, letting all excess in time of storm 



56 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 




DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE 57 

overflow into the river without being cleansed. For it is 
impossible to take care of such a volume of storm water 
and sewage at once. With the separate sewers the outflow 
from the smaller sanitary sewers can be readily purified at 
all times. 

Difficulty of Changing Systems. - To change from the 
combined to the separate systems is almost impossible, 
because of the enormous cost. The only way is to use the 
present combined system of pipes for storm water only, 
and to install an extra system of sanitary sewers, the flow 
of which can easily be purified because of the small amount. 
The smaller cities that are just installing sewers are using 
the more modern and scientific plan of separate systems. 
Baltimore only recently put in its first underground sewer 
system, so it is the only large city of our country that has 
separate sewers. 

Laying the Sewer Pipes. - The cross section of a street 
having the separate system is shown in the diagram on 
page 56. In this figure S.S. is the sanitary sewage pipe and 
S.T. is the storm-water drain ; CO. are the pipes that 
carry the storm water from the catch basins C.B. to the 
storm-water sewers. The catch basins receive the storm 
waters from the street gutters through the street open- 
ings C.I. The pipe G.S. is for gas, and W.S. is for city 
water. 

Manholes. — At the point where two or more sewers unite, 
an opening is usually made extending up to the surface of 
the street. This opening, which is called a manhole, is 
lined with brick and has a cast-iron cover that, as a rule, 
has many small holes in it to aid in ventilating the sewer. 
The chief purpose of the manhole is to enable workmen and 
inspectors to make repairs and to remove any stoppage or 
obstruction in the sewer. (See M.H., p. 56.) 



58 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

Street Catch Basins. — In the picture on page 56 you 
may see under the street gutters deep holes similar to 
manholes. These are sometimes at the corner and some- 
times midway between corners, and are called catch basins 
because they gather in all refuse that is carried off the street 
by water. The refuse settles to the bottom of the catch 
basins, which are regularly cleaned, and the water runs 
into the sewer. The catch basins prevent the sewers 
from becoming clogged with street filth. 

Sewer Traps. — Sewer gas is kept from coming up the 
pipes into our houses by sewer traps. These are bends in 
the pipe, where water stands to prevent the harmful gases 
from getting by. You will notice these traps under wash 
basins, under kitchen sinks, bathtubs, stationary wash- 
tubs, and in other plumbing. They protect the house 
from bad odors as well as poisonous gases. An escape pipe 
is usually arranged to lead off from below these traps, where 
the gas accumulates. This pipe extends up through the 
roof and carries off all unpleasant odors. 

The Problem of Sewage Purification. — The knowledge 
that sewage is the main avenue for the spread of typhoid 
fever is forcing upon cities the need of knowledge as to the 
treatment of sewage, so as to purify it before discharging 
it into streams. Since the opening of the drainage canal 
in 1900, the death rate from typhoid in Chicago has de- 
creased to such an extent that up to January, 191 2, there 
has been a saving of 13,238 lives. This is explained by the 
fact that there has been no sewage in the Chicago water 
since 1900. But though the drainage canal protects 
Chicago from its own sewage, it exposes other cities along 
the Illinois River that use river water. 

Methods of Treating Sewage. — There are two methods 
of treating sewage to rid it of its danger. There is in sew- 



DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE 59 

age a certain amount of fertilizer, and for many years the 
entire sewage of some towns has been used to irrigate and 
fertilize large farms outside the city. Fine crops are 
raised, and at the same time the sewage is freed from harm. 
The city of Pasadena has a great sewage farm, where about 
500 acres have been cultivated in one year. In winter 
the sewage has been used to grow English walnuts and in 
the summer, vegetables. Salt Lake City, Redlands, and 
other towns located in warm, dry, sandy regions have 
their sewage farms that both take care of sewage in a sani- 
tary manner and raise large crops besides. But many 
climates cannot raise crops all the year round. What is 
to be done with the sewage when the ground is frozen? 
Larger cities cannot resort to this method because of the 
high cost of land near the city limits. To dispose of sewage 
by irrigation requires one acre of ground for every 150 
people. On this basis New York City would need an im- 
mense farm about eight miles square. 

Another method in which great hopes were placed was 
to treat the sewage with chemicals that killed the dangerous 
bacteria or microbes in it. But this method, besides being 
very costly, has not proved entirely satisfactory. 

Recent Methods of Purification. — Then came the won- 
derful discovery that the sewage contained another kind 
of bacteria that would themselves purify the sewage if 
they were allowed to multiply and work upon it. These 
bacteria have been purifying sewage since the world began, 
but they cannot, without some assistance, take care of such 
enormous volume as our cities give forth. Some of these 
friendly bacteria seem to work best in the dark and without 
air, while others thrive best in air. 

How to make conditions right for these different bac- 
teria which are man's friends has been fairly well solved 



60 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

by many towns in this way : the sewage flows into enor- 
mous closed tanks in which the solid matter, or sludge, 
settles to the bottom, where it is quiet, dark, and airless. 
Here the bacteria work upon the sludge for a time. Then 
it is blown out of the bottom and put on a drying bed, where 
it becomes harmless. 

The liquid of the sewage, which still contains disease 
germs, is sprinkled or sprayed upon great beds of coke or 
sand and gravel, called " contact beds," which contain 
plenty of air. Every few feet a spray appears just above 
the surface of the bed. In appearance, the bed resembles 
a countless number of lawn sprinklers in operation. Here 
the helpful bacteria that require plenty of air multiply 
and work on the liquid waste as it trickles through the 
bed. They either kill the typhoid microbes or rob them 
of their food. Sometimes the liquid is passed through 
two or three of these beds before all the disease microbes 
are removed by death or starvation. After this, the puri- 
fied liquid, freed from disease germs, may flow into streams 
without polluting the water or endangering the health of 
the people who use it. 

The " contact beds " may be used the year round, be- 
cause the sewage comes from the pipes warm enough to 
prevent any freezing. There must be several beds, so that 
each may have periods of rest in order that abundance of 
air may be again introduced to aid the friendly bacteria. 
It is said that this system purifies sewage without a stench. 
It is the most up-to-date method, but it is expensive and 
difficult to keep the beds in good condition. Better plans 
will doubtless be found in the future, or improvements 
will be made on methods used to-day. 

The Sewage of Coast Cities. — If a city stands upon 
the seashore, it may discharge its sewage into the ocean. 



DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE 61 

But even this method causes unpleasantness, because the 
waves wash some of the waste ashore ; and if there are 
beaches for bathing, they are spoiled. Some coast cities 
are now using settling tanks to collect all solid matter, 
and are then piping the liquid to some distance out into 
the lake or sea. In this case there is left only the problem 
of disposing of the settlings, or sludge. 

London Sewage. — To get some idea of the task of car- 
ing for the sewage of a great city we will take London as 
an example. That city has about a thousand men in charge 
of the sewage disposal. The sewers drain 140 square miles 
of territory, having a population of about six million people. 
The sewer system carries away 230 million gallons of sew- 
age every day. This sewage is treated with lime and sul- 
phate of iron, which cause all solid matter to settle. The 
liquid is then discharged into the river, flowing thence into 
the sea. The sludge, 48,000 tons a week, is carried out 
to deep sea in six sludge vessels owned by the city. Each 
vessel carries a thousand tons at a load. The sludge sent 
out to sea in one year would cover 400 acres five feet deep. 
There are about 850 miles of sewer pipe in London. Many 
of these pipes are from nine to eleven feet in diameter. 
The expense of caring for the sewage of this great city is 
a million dollars a year, besides a cost of forty million dol- 
lars for building sewers. The city flushes all sewers twice 
a year to keep them clean and to protect the health of the 
people. 

Questions on the Text 

1. Why is sewage dangerous to health? 2. Describe the sewerage 
system of a large city. 3. Why should some cities purify their sew- 
age? 4. What are the two types of sewer systems? 5. Which is 
better and why? 6. What is the use of manholes? 7. What are 
street catch basins for? 8. What are sewer traps for? 9. What 



62 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

are sewage irrigation farms? 10. What cities use them? n. What 
objection is there to chemical treatment of sewage? 12. Describe 
the most modern methods of sewage disposal. 13. What advantages 
have coast cities in this matter ? 

Questions on your Home City 

14. Describe your sewerage system. 15. Into what does it drain? 
16. Does your city purify its sewage? 17. Has your city separate 
or combined sewers? 18. Would a sewage farm work satisfactorily 
for your city? 19. How many sewer traps in your home? 20. Ex- 
plain the use of all underground pipes on page 56. 21. How many 
pipes extend through your roof and what purpose do they serve ? 



CHAPTER VI 
THE DISPOSAL OF GARBAGE AND RUBBISH 

City Waste. — There are, besides sewage, some other 
kinds of waste that must be disposed of for the sake of 
health. Garbage cannot be carried like sewage by under- 
ground pipes. In the past it was allowed to accumulate 
in vile-smelling boxes, barrels, or cans to be scattered 
about by dogs, cats, and rats until it was removed by some 
cartman. 

By " garbage " is usually meant all kitchen scraps and 
food waste of meat and vegetables, besides all animal and 
vegetable matters from houses, stores, and markets. 
" Refuse," or rubbish, includes pieces of wood, paper, straw, 
rags, mattresses, broken furniture, house sweepings, and 
old clothing ; also glass, iron, tin cans, and crockery. Old 
rags and clothing often spread disease among the sorters 
and rag pickers. Ashes, including cinders, is the cleanest 
of all city waste and the most sanitary, if kept from the 
winds. In most cities dead animals, such as the carcasses 
of horses, cattle, and dogs, are hauled away in special 
wagons built for the purpose by private persons who oper- 
ate rendering works. Either the town or the owner pays 
for their disposal. During the year 191 1 the contractor 
removed from the streets and alleys of Chicago 8956 dead 
horses, 27,841 dogs, and 7 cows. 

Primitive Method of Disposal. — In places where families 
live some distance apart it is an easy matter to get rid of 
waste because of the small amount. Garbage is usually 

63 



64 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

cither fed to swine or fowls, dumped on the nearest vacant 
ground, into near-by swamps, or into the nearest stream or 
ocean bay. The chief object is to get this waste matter 
out of sight with the least cost and trouble. 

In villages in former days each family kept a pig or two 
which were fed on the food refuse and scraps from the 
kitchen. These animals were slaughtered for food at the 
approach of winter. But as the villages grew and more 
people crowded into the town limits, it became impossible 
to dispose of garbage in this way. It was then given 
to garbage men who took it away and sold it to farmers as 
food for stock. These garbage men did not collect it 
regularly or evenly over the city, and the spoiling kitchen 
refuse that remained became a nuisance. 

Up to 1884 Boston sold all the kitchen refuse to farmers 
in the state, to whom it was carried by wagon or train. 
Other cities in New England each owned a hog farm. 
The town bought or raised its own pigs, which were fattened 
on the garbage and sold. In the year 1903, Worcester 
sold from the city hog farm pork, pigs, and tallow to the 
amount of $12,000. The cost of collecting the garbage 
was about $18,000, so the city lacked only about $6000 
of paying the entire cost of its garbage disposal. 

But there are several objections to this economical 
plan. Hogs fed on such garbage are more likely than others 
to cause among people that eat the pork a disease called 
" trichinosis." Moreover, when large amounts of city 
garbage are dumped on open fields for feeding in hot weather 
the sight and odor are both disagreeable and unsanitary. 
Clouds of flies and insects and other lower living things 
multiply in the heaps of spoiling refuse. Certain modern 
cities, however, still dispose of their garbage by feeding 
it to hogs, and there is but little complaint of this method. 



THE DISPOSAL OF GARBAGE AND RUBBISH 65 

Garbage in Modern Villages. — In the smaller towns and 
villages of to-day that make no effort to care for garbage, 
vacant lots are often used as dumping grounds for all sorts 
of refuse. The dumps contain matter which gives off nox- 
ious odors under the hot summer sun, and they are both 
unsightly and unhealthy. The cartmen, when no law 
hinders, select the nearest place to unload ; generally a 
valley or ravine is a favorite place to dump. Such unsightly 
spots are sure to drive away people who are looking for a 
home in a clean and healthful city, while the poorer towns- 
people are compelled to live and rear their families in these 
unsanitary surroundings. As disease from these families 
is likely to reach other citizens of the town, the matter is 
a vital one to all. Burial in the earth disposes of garbage 
in a much safer manner ; but when people are crowded to- 
gether in large cities, there is no convenient place for the 
burial of garbage. The land about the city is too valuable, 
and available ground is too distant. 

Removal Systems. The License System. — When 
enough citizens complain of the garbage dumps, town 
authorities usually make laws or ordinances placing this 
matter under the direction of a health officer. He may 
license certain cartmen to collect and remove all the waste 
from the premises of people who will pay him for the serv- 
ice. This is known as the " license system." It is not 
wholly satisfactory, in that the careful man is not protected 
from his careless neighbor, who, instead of paying for its 
removal, permits his garbage to pile up in the alleys and 
yards until it is a nuisance. Now people are beginning to 
see that in order to have this work done well they must 
tax themselves to pay for it. With tax money the city 
may hire a contractor to dispose of all garbage in the city. 

The Contract System. — The contract system is better 



66 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

than the license system because the contractor is responsible 
to the city government for the removal of all the garbage 
from the city for a year or a term of years, and the city can 
refuse to pay him if the work is not satisfactory. The 
garbage is collected daily, or every other day, in the thickly 
settled parts of town, and perhaps twice a week in other 
sections. Since the contractor seldom gets enough profit 
to enable him to give the best service, he ordinarily does 
as little as he dares to make sure of his pay. 

The Municipal. — In other places the town does all the 
work with its own teams and wagons and its own employees 
or workmen. This is known as the " municipal system." 
It means great expense in providing teams, tools, and other 
equipment ; but it is the most satisfactory. There are an 
increasing number of cities that own their own garbage 
equipment and plants. Some cities take care of part of 
the waste and let the rest out to a contractor or company. 
Prior to 1914, Chicago collected the garbage in city wagons 
and turned it over to a private company for disposal, while 
the ashes were collected by hired teams and wagons. 

Garbage Collection. — In most American towns house- 
holders are required to put garbage and ashes in separate 
cans. Where the best sanitary methods are observed, 
garbage is placed in metal cans with covers. This should 
be collected at night in water-tight steel garbage wagons 
that have covers of metal or canvas to keep the odors under 
control in hot weather. Garbage wagons ought to move 
slowly to keep from spreading dust and disturbing the sleep- 
ing city. 

Garbage Disposal. — There is some value in garbage as 
a fertilizer for poor soils. Many American towns have 
tried the plan of plowing it under to raise crops, but they 
have not long continued it. Large areas of suitable land are 



THE DISPOSAL OF GARBAGE AND RUBBISH 67 

seldom found in the vicinity of cities. Besides, the soil 
must have time to take care of, or digest, green garbage, 
because certain elements which it contains are harmful. 

Burning and reduction are the two safe and sanitary 
methods of disposing of separate or green garbage. Gar- 
bage is burned in different kinds of furnaces. Some of 
these, called crematories, require a great deal of coal to 
complete the combustion of the wet garbage. The ordi- 
nary crematories do not have high enough temperatures 
to burn all the gases, so the odors from the plants become 
a nuisance to neighboring dwellings. Various American 
cities have tried the crematories and found this method of 
disposing of garbage both expensive and unsatisfactory. 

In Europe, where rubbish, ashes, and garbage are usually 
collected in the same can, a type of furnace is made that 
secures a temperature high enough to make the garbage 
burn itself without the use of extra coal aside from the 
unburnt coal of the ashes. These furnaces are called de- 
structors. They not only destroy the garbage along with 
its gases and smoke, but they furnish power, heat, and light 
to sell ; and thus they pay nearly all expense of garbage 
disposal. A forced draft in the furnace secures this high 
temperature. Air is pumped in to force a hotter lire than 
the mere draft of an ordinary chimney would produce, 
in the same manner as the blacksmith uses his bellows 
to make his fire burn faster. It is easier to burn the garbage 
in Europe because it is said to have far less water than that 
in this country. 

The European destructors are being used in a measure 
in our country. As they give off no odors, they may be 
built centrally in the town, so that the garbage need not 
be hauled great distances, thus reducing the cost of collec- 
tion. Besides the burning of garbage, these plants supply 



68 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

power for running dynamos which furnish electricity for 
different purposes. Frequently enough power is sold by 
the plant to more than meet the cost of destroying the 
garbage. This, however, does not include the cost of col- 
lection. Seattle, Vancouver, New Brighton, New York, 
and many other cities have destructors that are satisfac- 
tory. They thoroughly destroy all garbage, they breed 
no flies, and they do away with all microbes and bacteria. 
A city may have a number of such plants so located as to 
shorten the cartage of garbage. In addition to returning a 
profit to the city from the sale of power, light, and heat, 
they sell clean ashes and cinders for concrete work and for 
filling depressions and constructing road work. San Fran- 
cisco has also recently adopted the English mode of burning 
garbage, and the city owns its own incinerators. 

The Example of German Cities. — The German cities 
have solved the garbage problem in the most economical 
manner. They employ as heads of government depart- 
ments only expert men who have made a long study of 
their work. Our American citizens because of politics 
often choose a man who has no merit to recommend him 
save that he is a Republican or a Democrat. German 
cities do many things better and cheaper than they are 
done here, because they are unwilling to trust their affairs 
to any but expert judgment. When shall we learn this 
lesson ? 

In Furth, Germany, where the most scientific methods 
of garbage collection and disposal are employed, the plants 
furnish enough paving material and electric power to prac- 
tically pay all expenses. That is, they make the garbage 
take care of itself. Labor in Europe is cheaper than it is 
here, but in order to reduce expenses, machinery is used 
for most of the unpleasant work. Tightly closed auto 



THE DISPOSAL OF GARBAGE AND RUBBISH 69 




70 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

wagons collect the garbage. In Frankfort, the metal 
wagon is lifted by machinery and the garbage dumped 
directly into the furnace. 

Reduction of Garbage. — Some men maintain that it 
is a serious waste to burn garbage because it contains ele- 
ments that the world needs. So there are in our land to-day 
many reduction plants which, instead of burning, separate 
the garbage into grease and fertilizer, both of which may 
be sold. The average ton of mixed garbage contains about 
60 pounds of grease, 1420 pounds of water, 100 pounds of 
rubbish, and 400 pounds of tankage. The rubbish is com- 
posed of bottles, tin cans, rags, bits of wood, glass, shells, 
iron, and the like. Tin cans are worth about five dollars 
per ton ; the iron is often melted and made into sash 
weights ; unbroken bottles may be cleaned and sold for about 
four cents a dozen to junk dealers to be refilled with cheap 
ketchup, oils, and other food products. The broken glass 
may also be separated and sold at about four dollars per 
ton. Rags are washed, dried, and sold at half a cent a 
pound to make paper. 

The sixty pounds of grease in the ton of garbage has the 
greatest value of any of the products of reduction. It is 
of a low grade and sells for three or four cents a pound. 
Most of it is sent to Belgium or France, where it is made 
into soap, candles, or axlegrease ; and some of it is probably 
sent back in this form. The tankage is the solid material 
left after the water and grease and refuse have been removed. 
Tankage contains some plant food and is usually sold to 
manufacturers of farm fertilizers. 

Disposal of Rubbish and Ashes. — Where refuse or rub- 
bish is collected apart from the garbage and ashes, it is 
often sorted for market before the useless matter is burned. 
In such cases the rubbish is all thrown on a long, moving, 



THE DISPOSAL OF GARBAGE AND RUBBISH 71 

endless belt or inclined elevator with men and boys ranged 
on each side. One picks out brown paper, another white, 
another rags, still another metal substances, and so on. 
What remains is carried on by the belt and dumped into 
the furnace which gives power to light the building, run 
the belt, and possibly furnishes a surplus of power for 
sale. 

The ashes of most cities in England are disposed of with 
the garbage and rubbish. But in the larger number of 
cities in America the ashes are collected separately and used 
only for filling in low places and grading streets. In cities 
that use hard coal there is much good fuel left in the 
ashes, and this may be easily and profitably separated by 
machinery. 

The Best Disposal Plant. — On the whole a small city 
or town finds that the best disposal system of garbage is 
by burning. Only the high temperature furnace or destruc- 
tor should be used, because the other kind fails to burn the 
gases and smoke, and requires too much fuel. It takes a 
city of at least 100,000 people to furnish enough garbage 
for using the reduction plan to advantage. 

City-owned Plants. — If the voters were not so indiffer- 
ent about choosing proper men to manage city affairs, it 
would be best for all municipalities to own their own gar- 
bage plants. Prior to 1913, Chicago collected the garbage 
and paid $47,500 a year to the private reduction plant that 
disposed of it. The city of Cleveland owns its own reduc- 
tion plant, which is a marked success. This is true of San 
Francisco. Other cities hesitate to undertake public owner- 
ship, because they know the danger when such things are 
dragged into politics and untrained politicians undertake 
to do the work that only trained experts should attempt. 



72 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

Questions on the Text 

i. What is meant by garbage? 2. How is it disposed of in small 
towns? 3. What is the license system? 4. What is the contract 
system? 5. What is the municipal system of garbage disposal? 
6. What are some good rules about collection ? 7. Does garbage make 
good fertilizer? 8. What are destructors? 9. How do they differ 
from crematories ? 10. What is meant by reduction of garbage ? 

Questions on your Home City 

11. Does your city collect and dispose of the garbage or is it given 
out by contract? 12. How often is your garbage collected? 13. 
Are ashes collected separately? 14. How are the ashes and the 
garbage disposed of ? 15. Is this a satisfactory method ? 16. What 
is the yearly cost to your city of the collection and disposal of garbage ? 



CHAPTER VII 
THE CLEANING OF CITY STREETS 

Why Clean Streets ? — Filthy streets are a disgrace to 
any city. They put the stamp of failure on both the city 
government and the people who are responsible for it. 
Clean streets add to the health and comfort of the citizens 
and make the city more attractive. This induces desirable 
people to make their homes there. In our more crowded 
cities, children often have no other playground than the 
street. In the closely built sections, it is the only breathing 
place for grown-ups as well as children. 

Street Cleaning. — Dirt may be gathered from the 
streets and boulevards either by hand brooms or by machine 
brooms. Machines do satisfactory work on smooth pave- 
ments like asphalt, brick, and smooth stone blocks; but 
on rough and uneven pavements where macadam is used, 
hand sweeping is necessary. 

Where a city does the work, or where it is let out by 
contract, the street cleaning is usually done in the follow- 
ing manner: There are two shifts of men, the day shift 
and the night shift. The day shift are the men in white 
who patrol the streets during the day, sweeping up drop- 
pings and refuse. The night shift of the street-cleaning 
department does not begin its work as a usual thing till 
nine or ten o'clock. This shift does the thorough cleaning 
of the streets. First the street is sprinkled heavily. The 
sprinkler is followed by a horse-drawn rotary sweeper which 
pushes all the refuse into the gutter. Men with brooms 

73 



74 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 



and shovels gather the refuse into piles and it is carted away 
in wagons. 

There are some objections to the machine broom. If the 
sprinkling is too heavy, mud is formed and thrown about 
when it revolves. For this reason machines cannot be 
satisfactorily used in hot weather when the dust is trouble- 
some. Other machines have been invented that sweep up 
the dirt automatically and load it on a wagon. Some of 
them use suction or the vacuum method. 




Courtesy Dept. of Street Cleaning, New York City. 

Street Sweeper at Work, New York. 

Hand sweeping is done either by day or by night, except 
in the business sections where an attempt is being made 
to keep the streets clean all the time. In this case, one 
man is assigned a certain length of road to keep clean. He 
is provided with a can or bag mounted on two wheels and 
a broad shovel and short-handled broom. If a bag is 
used it is closed when full and left on the curb to be hauled 
away. The use of bags prevents the dust that is created 



THE CLEANING OF CITY STREETS 75 

when cans are emptied into carts along the streets. Some- 
times the dust is merely swept into piles at the curb line. 
Such heaps of dust are liable to be scattered by the wind 
before the wagon arrives to remove them. 

In Paris and other cities of Europe, as well as in some 
American cities, the streets are regularly flushed or washed 
with water. The flusher is a large tank wagon with gaso- 
line power which forces the water upon the street with 
sufficient power to wash the refuse into the gutter, where 
men with brooms sweep the filth along into the storm 
sewers. It would be well if our cities also practiced this 
method on asphalt streets and on such brick pavements 
as have waterproof cemented joints. Brick streets with 
sand-filled joints cannot be flushed because the sand is SO 
easily washed out. One method of flushing streets is by 
pouring on water freely and following with the broom be- 
fore the water has had time to flow away. Another way is 
swilling down with the large hose, using the force of the 
water to remove all dirt ; but this plan is apt to wear 
streets that have holes or cracks to be washed out. 

The Dust Nuisance. — The prevention of dust on city 
streets has always been a difficult task. Since automobiles 
have become so common, the nuisance of dust has greatly 
increased. The fast-revolving wheels of these cars appear 
to suck up the dust and dirt from all cracks and joints iA 
the pavement and send it whirling in the air. Automobiles 
wear away and grind up the surface of streets, and this 
dust, together with that from ashes, leaves, and manure, 
soon becomes intolerable. It is blown into houses, offices, 
and stores, soiling furniture, books, and clothing, and 
making people grimy and uncomfortable. 

The usual way of laying dust is by sprinkling with water. 
This plan is costly, as it has to be repeated six or eight times 



76 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

a day in dry weather. In coast cities salt water has been 
tried, but it proved unsatisfactory because the salty mud 
injured clothes and vehicles and the dust was irritating to 
eyes and throats. Some kinds of pavements give forth less 
dust than others and so need less attention. 

In very dry seasons macadam streets must either be 
sprinkled regularly to keep down the dust, or oil or tarvia 
must be applied. Tarvia needs to be spread but once for 
a season. It not only keeps down all dust, but it helps 
to bind the surface materials and to make macadam roads 
wear better by giving them a harder surface. Oil or tarvia 
can be used to keep down dust, and are as cheap as water, 
because of the frequency with which the latter needs to be 
applied in the dry season. There are other methods of 
laying dust. Chemicals that draw moisture from the air 
and so keep the street surface moist are used very success- 
fully. Heavy rains, however, are likely to wash such sub- 
stances away before the close of the season. 

Snow Removal. — In northern climates snow must be 
removed from the business streets in winter, as it delays 
traffic and interferes with trade. When the snow begins 
to melt, the gutters must be cleared so the waste may run 
into the sewers. This generally means the calling out and 
managing of an entirely new force of men and teams. 
Sometimes the entire work is given over to a contractor 
for a fixed payment of money. The snow must be dumped 
in as convenient a place as is possible in order to save the 
cost of a long cartage. It is often thrown into rivers or 
lakes, if they are convenient ; otherwise vacant lots are 
used. To undertake to melt such a great amount of snow 
as frequently falls would be very expensive. 



THE CLEANING OF CITY STREETS 77 

Questions on the Text 

1. How does the work of the day system of street cleaning differ 
from the night work ? 2. What are the advantages and objections 
to flushing streets? 3. What relation is there between dust and 
health? 4. How do different cities solve the dust problem in sum- 
mer? 5. What are the advantages of oiling streets? 6. Are there 
objections to oiling? 7. What can be said in favor of tarvia ? 

Questions on voir Home City 

8. How are your streets cleaned? 9. Are night workmen used? 
10. Has your city a rotary sweeper? 11. What other up-to-date 
appliances has the city ? 12. How does your city keep down the dust 
in summer? 13. What other method might it use? 



CHAPTER VIII 
CITY HOUSING 

Homes or Tenements ? — There is one question that a 
growing city must answer promptly, or the opportunity is 
lost forever. It is whether the city shall remain a city of 
homes or shall become what our largest city now is, a 
city of tenements. Men and women who have spent years 



m f 



SRMBrlB ffl 




Courtesy Tenement House Dept., New York City. 
A Modern Tenement, New York. 

in the study of housing declare that a tenement house is 
vastly inferior to the single family house and that it can 
never be in the same sense a home. Tenements can be 
made sanitary. The tenements of New York are to-day 
more sanitary than many of the wretched shacks that 

78 



CITY HOUSING 79 

shelter the poorer people of some of our smaller cities and 
towns. Tenements do afford convenient shelter for broken 
families and for families without children. But no city 
can afford to allow the convenience of broken families to 
lead to the adoption of the tenement habit for the great 
body of its working population. The city of Cleveland 
has won fame throughout our country for the way it has 
warded off the tenement and provided proper housing for 
its people. 

Mr. Henry Vivian, who has done so much for proper 
housing in England, recently made a tour of the cities of 
the United States. He said it was deplorable that cities 
were continuing to pack their inhabitants in tiers in tene- 
ments. No city, he declared, ought to allow any further 
erection of tenements. They destroy strength of character 
and imagination, and the children living in them lose the 
capacity for self-development and for carving out their 
own lives. 

" If we could put a ring around the average city like 
Chicago or Liverpool for a few years/' said Mr. Vivian, 
" stopping the supply of good blood from the country 
districts, those great cities would all go down, they would 
dwindle and die. Out of 1 1,000 men from Manchester who 
offered to enlist in the British army only 1000 were found 
to be physically fit for the soldier life. People must not 
lose contact with fresh air and nature. We must see to 
it that our cities shall be health-producing." 

Slum Conditions. — We commonly think that only large 
cities have slums, but working people, as a rule, are badly 
housed. Thousands of poor people in smaller cities do not 
have in their homes sufficient sunlight, pure air, and good 
water. What are thought to be " just old houses " where 
poor people live are in reality slums. Even in our villages 



8o CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

may be found inhabited houses that would be a disgrace 
to a crowded city. Such slums are found in every state 
in the Union. Outside our large cities are beautiful suburbs 
where well-to-do city people live, yet even here slums of 
the worst sort have been discovered, mere shacks that shelter 
the poorer people who serve the needs of their wealthy 
neighbors. 

The most common evil found in the homes of the 
poor is lack of water, drainage, and sewerage. In many 
cases several families depend upon one cistern, which is 
often uncovered and polluted by trash as well as by 
seep water from the undrained yard vaults. In one of 
our cities twenty families in one tenement had to carry 
all their water from a fountain a square away. This 
is a serious bar to cleanliness. The yards are often un- 
drained and are sodden and foul smelling. Old suds and 
dishwater are standing in slimy pools covered with scum. 
Tiny backyards are piled up with ashes, garbage, and 
rubbish, and there are often filthy yard closets which spread 
disease germs by means of swarms of flies that go back 
and forth from the kitchen. From such conditions spring 
chills, fever, and typhoid. 

Bad Housing. — Any condition of housing that impairs 
the physical or moral health of the tenant, or that is unsani- 
tary and a menace to the community, is bad housing. 

It is often in the old, decayed, and dilapidated house that 
the poor must live. The older the house, the filthier it 
gets. As it goes from bad to worse it draws a poorer and 
lower class of tenants, until it becomes a shack. Then a 
slum district starts around it. Each tenant leaves a layer 
of dirt, and countless germs gather in the loose cracks of 
the woodwork and broken plastering. Many of the houses 
are low and damp, sometimes they are built flat on the 



CITY HOUSING 



ground. Even in villages, rooms are found without win- 
dows, and few of the houses have even fair ventilation. 
In many instances families live in damp and filthy base- 
ments. 

In a certain town, houses of five rooms or less have from 
ten to twenty boarders. Here one consumptive could 
spread the disease among all. In another house seventeen 




Bad Housing. 

men, one woman, and two children were found living in 
two rooms. In another case nine men had two rooms, one 
of which had no window. In a closet in this room six feet 
long and thirty inches wide, a man was lying asleep with 
the door locked. 

In all American cities where a large foreign population 
have settled there is overcrowding of rooms, especially 
among Italians, Poles, and Russians. Sometimes ten or fif- 
teen people live in one room. The crowding is seldom due 



82 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

to the large family so much as to lodgers and boarders. Sin- 
gle men who have just arrived from Europe and have not 
yet learned the language are here to earn and save as much 
as possible so that they may soon return to their native 
soil. They will live in almost any manner. But men who 
have studied the housing evil with this in view declare 
that such overcrowding is, in most cases, caused by greed 
rather than by necessity. Our foreign immigrants desire 
to add penny to penny and dollar to dollar as rapidly as 
possible by sharing their small quarters with lodgers, and 
they neither know nor care what effect it will have on 
them or the community. 

On the other hand, there are many families that are forced 
to crowd their living quarters because of high rents. The 
men may not be earning because of illness or they may be 
out of work, and it is necessary to take in lodgers to keep 
the family from starving. Widows with families depend- 
ent on their own efforts are forced to live in basements 
where the rent is cheap in order to have cover for their 
heads. 

Effect of Slum Life on Health and Character. — Sick- 
ness is nearly always found in the slum tenement. The 
wonder is how any one can ever be well, living in such 
dark places and breathing such foul air. In the dark, damp 
rooms, disease germs live and multiply, because there is 
no sunlight and pure air to destroy them. Tuberculosis, 
typhoid, colds, chills, and fevers all take their toll of life. 
Four miles from the workingmen's district in Birmingham, 
England, is the model industrial town of Bournville. Out 
of every thousand children born in Birmingham, 331 
babies die. Out of every thousand born in Bournville, 
only 65 die. 

" The most pitiful victim of city life is not the slum 



CITY HOUSING 83 

child who dies, but the slum child that lives. Every time 
a baby dies the nation loses a prospective citizen, but in 
every slum child that lives the nation has a probable con- 
sumptive and a possible criminal." " You can't let people 
live like pigs and expect them to be good citizens," said 
Jacob Riis. What hope is there from the slum voter? 
Here is found the home of the criminal, and the weak- 
minded classes that cost the state hundreds of thousands of 
dollars annually. Yet we are allowing slums to grow up 
about us at a greater rate every year. 

Effect of the Slum on the City. — Disease originating 
in the slums, spreads to all parts of the city. The well- 
to-do are not secure, for there are many ways of scatter- 
ing the contagion. Certain diseases are known to spread 
through a community by means of garments made in sweat 
shops, by rats and mice, by flies and fleas. Children from 
clean homes and slum children sit side by side at school, 
and filth and disease poison the bodies. The foul lan- 
guage and bad habits of the neglected children poison the 
minds of those that are carefully reared. On the streets 
and in crowded buildings and street cars, the slum dweller 
touches elbows with the clean citizen, and the germs are 
carried home. The slums poison an entire town. 

Curing the Slum Evils. — To remedy the slum evil of 
room crowding has been a difficult matter, because people 
deny that they keep lodgers. An attempt was made in 
New York some years ago to bring offenders to punishment. 
Policemen in squads were sent out to make night inspec- 
tions in those tenements where overcrowding was suspected. 
The policemen would enter the halls of the tenement and 
knock at the door. When the occupants asked what was 
wanted, they were told to open the door to the police. 
After a long delay and some noise, the door was opened and 



8 4 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 



the police usually found only the family. But before the 
door opened the lodgers had all passed out of the window 
to the fire escape, where they remained concealed until the 
police departed and allowed them to go back to their sleep- 
ing places on the floor. 

Thinking people are coming to believe that the landlord 
who owns and rents these slum houses must be held respon- 




Courtesy Dept. of Public Health, Philadelphia. 

Workmen's Houses, Philadelphia. Doing away with Slums. 

sible for bad conditions. " A man has as much right to 
kill another man in the street with an ax as he has to kill 
him with a bad house." Collecting rent from the dwellers 
of foul tenements is like taking blood money. 

The Tenement is not a Necessity. — New York, it is 
true, is a city of tenements. No other type of building is 
now possible there except in outlying districts. But there 
is no other city in America where the tenement house is a 
necessity as the chief type of dwelling for the working popu- 



CITY HOUSING 85 

lation. Chicago has, in recent years, built many tenements, 
but the small house is still practicable there. Where land 
values are high, one-family houses for working people may 
be built in rows close together at such a cost as to put them 
within the reach of a workingman. This plan has been 
followed with marked success in Philadelphia, where tene- 
ments have been kept out. What Philadelphia has done, 
every city, save New York and possibly Boston, can do. 

But where tenements do exist, there should be regulations 
providing air and light. In a city like New York it is im- 
possible to limit the height of future non-fire-proof tenement 
houses to three or four stories. The land values demand 
that they be built six stories high. Y r et in most American 
cities land values are not so high but that it is possible to 
limit such buildings to three, or at most, four stories. 

In New York it is not possible to require more than thirty 
per cent of the lot for open space because of the high cost 
of land ; but in other cities forty or even fifty per cent of 
the lot should be left free of buildings. The smaller the 
city, the larger should be the free space about each dwelling. 
The best way to insure health is to prevent buildings being 
crowded together and to provide every inch of light and air 
possible for every human being. 

Housing Laws and Recent Advances. — The housing 
laws of most states are of little consequence, because they 
are not rigid enough to be effective. In most cases the 
only requirement is that there shall not be less than a cer- 
tain amount of cubic air space for each occupant of a room. 
Far more important than the amount of air space, is the 
kind and quality of air and how frequently it is changed. 
A small room well lighted and ventilated is far more desir- 
able than a large one where the air is dead and unchanged 
from day to day. 



86 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

But there are steps being made to better things. Our 
larger cities are making stricter laws governing the new 
buildings that are put up. In other places there are 
housing associations that are constructing good houses at 
moderate cost and renting them to workingmen on very 
reasonable terms. 

Questions on the Text 

i. What are the objections to tenements? 2. What did Henry 
Vivian say of tenements ? 3. Are there slums in small cities ? 4. Are 
all tenements slums ? 5. What are the most common faults of bad 
housing ? 6. What makes a dilapidated house dangerous to health ? 
7. What two things are most needed in slum districts? 8. What did 
Jacob Riis say about slums and citizens? 9. What bearing have 
slums on contagion ? 10. What laws could you suggest which would 
lessen the danger from slums ? 

Questions on your Home City 

11. Has your city tenements? 12. Has it any slums? 13. Do 
you know of any old houses where people live in filth ? 14. Did you 
ever hear of tubercular persons living in them ? 15. Do the landlords 
of your city provide light and air in their renting apartments? 
16. Do you ventilate your bedroom every night ? 



CHAPTER IX 
THE PROBLEM OF THE POOR 

Wealth Unequally Distributed. — Since the invention 
of the steam engine, the world has made great industrial 
progress, and wealth has increased enormously. With 
this has come a higher standard of living. People now have 
a great many comforts and luxuries that were not dreamed 
of in the days of Washington. There is enough wealth 
in the world to-day, if it were well distributed, to enable 
everybody to live comfortably; but this is far from being 
the case. Some have a thousand times as much as tliev 
can use, while others must go through life hungry, poorly 
clad, and suffering from real need. 

The Needy. — Many a family that cannot earn enough 
to support itself is supplied by relatives or by neighbors. 
These do not apply to the city for aid. But needy families 
and individuals who have neither relatives nor friends to 
help them keep hunger away must appeal to strangers. 
This we call begging or asking for alms. It is of vital con- 
cern to the community. 

There are many classes of people who do not make a 
living. Some are paupers who are lazy and shiftless. They 
find it easier to ask alms than to work. Others are drunk- 
ards who spend their money for liquor, leaving their families 
to suffer. Still other people are so dishonest that they 
cannot long hold a position ; some disobey orders or 
quarrel with their employers and are thrown out of work. 
Many times sickness or the death of a member of the family 

87 



88 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

Leaves the others in want and unable to earn the necessities 
of life. 

Worst of all, there are many worthy and industrious 
citizens who have been thrown out of work through no 
fault of their own. They have been dropped from the pay- 
roll because business is dull or because the firm has failed 
or gone into another line of business for which the former 
employees are unfitted. Some workers are let out because 
of old age or because a younger man has been found who 
can do the work better. Often a man fails in business 
and is left discouraged, penniless, and in poor health. 
Some families suffer because of strikes; others who are 
fully employed are so poorly paid that they need assist- 
ance ; and still other workers suffer injury and therefore 
cease to earn. 

Needy people do not all come from one class or occupa- 
tion : they come from the learned professions, from the 
merchant or clerical classes, from skilled and unskilled arti- 
sans. Every race, religion, color, and nationality are 
represented among those who apply to the city for aid. 

Methods of Relief. — The purpose of charity or of a 
wise relief policy is to give the children of the dependent 
classes a chance to rise above the surroundings of their 
parents and so to become self-respecting and self-support- 
ing members of society. It gives those who are sick or dis- 
abled a chance to regain health or to live with less suffer- 
ing under more kindly care. It provides for the aged and 
infirm and for the insane a suitable home. The city or 
the county usually provides hospitals for the sick and 
injured, where the poor receive medical treatment free. 
The insane and feeble-minded are also cared for in special 
institutions provided by the state. 

Charitable relief may be furnished in many other ways. 



THE PROBLEM OF THE POOR 89 

It may be found best to give money, food, fuel, clothing, 
or tools ; it may be that medical treatment or legal advice 
is most needed. Assistance in finding employment or trans- 
portation to another locality may be the aid that is most 
helpful. 

For many years there was little judgment used in reliev- 
ing the needy. A large number of individuals gave pri- 
vately and directly to those whom they believed to be 
deserving. The various churches also collected from their 
members for distribution to the poor, and there arose in the 
cities a number of charitable organizations. All of these 
were private ways of relieving distress. Police, or officers 
especially chosen for the purpose, doled relief. Amid such 
confusion the dishonest and crafty beggars waxed fat, be- 
cause they gathered alms from a dozen or more organiza- 
tions and individuals, none of which took the trouble to 
investigate before giving. 

When paupers were found to be increasing, the city relief 
organizations began a system of careful visitation, using 
paid and trained officials to investigate each case. It was 
soon discovered that many of the families applying for 
relief were doing it habitually from year to year, not be- 
cause of actual need, but because their neighbors were re- 
ceiving help and they considered it their right. Some 
undeserving paupers were receiving from a dozen different 
sources, while hundreds of deserving poor who were too 
honorable to press their claims received no help whatever. 

It was found that much of the giving to charity does 
more harm than good. So the plan was tried of combining 
all charity organizations into one body. These investi- 
gated all cases carefully, employing trained visitors in the 
case of each one applying for aid. To decide the merits 
of the case, it is necessary to know the expenditure neces- 



go CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

sary to maintain a reasonable standard of living for each 
family, and how much each member of the family can fur- 
nish towards this support. 

United Charities. — Thus in recent years there has 
arisen the movement for a United Charities Association, 
and many a city now has trained experts to look after 
charity cases. In some instances the city furnishes part 
of the funds for this work, but most of it comes from 
interested citizens. One of the chief endeavors is to pre- 
vent charity by visiting the poor in their homes, giving such 
advice and help as to make people self-supporting through 
industry, saving habits, and more intelligent buying of 
family necessities. Men and women who are trained in 
this relief work condemn the practice of giving to strangers 
as harmful. 

The following are some of the rules of the new charity 
methods : To examine every case fairly ; to give relief only 
after a careful investigation by visitation and inquiry ; to 
relieve no one except through the visitor of the section in 
which he lives ; to give necessary articles and only enough 
for immediate needs ; to give at the right moment and to 
change the articles given according to the needs ; and to 
discontinue relieving all who refuse to try to support 
themselves. 

The Tramp. — The problem of dealing with the profes- 
sional tramp is a troublesome one, because it is difficult to 
distinguish between genuine tramps and deserving persons 
who are out of employment. Some towns provide food for 
these vagrants and send them on to the next town. Many 
cities keep, during the winter, a poor house or a municipal 
lodging house for tramps and turn them out on the approach 
of warm weather. But this is merely dodging the problem, 
for it gives no chance to test their desire or ability to work. 



THE PROBLEM OF THE POOR 91 

Certain cities have established wood and stone yards in 
which tramps are compelled to work to earn at least a part 
of their support. The number of tramps in such towns is 
fewer than in those where food is given free. 

Questions on the Text 

1. How do you explain the fact that some people are almost over- 
whelmed with riches while others are starving? 2. What various 
classes of people are dependents? 3. Do the poor come from any 
particular class of people ? 4. What two things should one keep in 
mind in giving alms? 5. What kinds of aid are given the poor? 
6. What are the dangers from unorganized charity? 7. What is 
meant by United Charities ? 

Questions on your Home City 

8. What help does your city give to the poor? 9. Have you 
almshouses? 10. What is done with destitute children ? 11. Do you 
feed tramps at your door ? 1 2. If you do not, why ? 13. Does your 
city or county have agents to visit the homes of those applying for aid ? 



CHAPTER X 
MUNICIPAL MARKETS 

The City Market. — Municipal, or city, markets are 
those built by the city and owned and operated under city 
ordinances or laws. Not all cities own and operate markets, 
but nearly all large European cities do, and a number of 
American cities have introduced them in some measure. 
These markets are usually housed. In some cities the 
buildings are costly, valued at many thousands of dollars. 
Inside there are booths or stands for the sellers. The 
standholders pay a small rental to the city. Some cities 
in our country have failed in keeping their market clean and 
sanitary, but every year the people insist on more attention 
being given these matters. 

There are two kinds of municipal markets. One is the 
retail market, to which the householders go with baskets 
to get supplies for their own homes ; the other is a whole- 
sale market where grocers, peddlers, and hucksters appear 
to buy for their trade supplies in large quantities. 

The city retail markets where people go with their baskets 
seem to be a success in many cities, but in others they are 
not popular and have been abandoned. The reason usually 
given for this decline is that people sometimes prefer to 
buy at groceries which deliver at the home door. This 
saves the housekeeper time and travel or perhaps a car- 
fare, for city markets cannot be so well scattered as to be in 
walking distance of all the homes. Another reason for the 
decline of certain retail markets is said to be the truck 

02 



MUNICIPAL MARKETS 



93 



peddler who drives about the streets delivering at the door. 
He has no rent nor market tolls to pay, and can therefore 
sell more cheaply than those who take their produce to 
the market. Some of the retail markets in American cities 
have gradually declined because the people ceased to 
patronize them. It is natural that grocers and commission 
men would oppose city markets, because these markets 
interfere with their business. In some cases where retail 
markets have been unsuccessful, it may be due to these 
influences. Wholesale markets are, however, uniformly 
successful wherever they have been tried. 

Care should be taken in locating markets. The whole- 
sale market must be near a railroad terminal or close by 
the water front, or both, so as to save the extra cartage to 
the market. Retail markets should be as convenient as 
possible to the people. They ought to be rigidly con- 
trolled by city officers, to make sure that all dealings are 
fair. The city should furnish correct weights and measures. 
The rentals must be low, and no one should be allowed to 
rent a booth and then sublet it to some one else. 

What the City Market Accomplishes. — The object of a 
municipal, or city, market is to aid in getting food and 
other articles to the people as directly as possible, without 
the necessity of their passing through the hands of many 
dealers, or middlemen. Each of these men must have a 
profit on the goods he handles. Every middleman adds 
his profits to the price of the product he sells, and the 
people must pay a higher price for the goods in proportion 
to the number of middlemen who handle them. Municipal 
markets, by doing away with middlemen, tend to keep 
prices down and to furnish the people with supplies fresher 
than when they pass through so many hands. 

In Des Moines the municipal markets have reduced the 



04 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

price of garden vegetables from one fifth to one half the 
former price. The producer and consumer come face to 
face with mutual profit. The man who grew the sweet corn 
places it in the hands of the housewife who is to serve it on 
her table. The middleman who would ordinarily take his 
toll of profit on each dozen ears is ruled out. The farmer 
gets a little more money and the housewife pays a little 
less than before. 

Most of the cities which conduct municipal markets 
not only reduce the cost of food supplies to their people, 
but the city governments realize a good profit on them. 
Boston's yearly profit has been as much as $60,000 ; New 
Orleans, $80,000 ; and scores of other cities, among them 
Buffalo, Cleveland, Nashville, Indianapolis, and St. Paul, 
have made handsome profits from their markets. 

The Growth of the Movement. — In Rochester, N.Y., 
the public market has been in operation a number of years 
and is a marked success. It is said to be patronized by all 
classes of people, and has reduced the cost of garden truck 
to the consumer. The old market has become too small, 
and the people are now looking to a new one. 

In spite of some past failures in city retail markets, a 
goodly number of American cities have recently installed 
them. Los Angeles, Toledo, and Dayton, Ohio, are among 
the number. Their citizens patronize the markets well. 
This demand for retail markets is largely a woman's move- 
ment, and a protest against the modern high cost of living. 
In all cities and districts where markets are properly man- 
aged and where people are willing to go with their baskets, 
municipal markets seem to be very successful. 



MUNICIPAL MARKETS 95 

Questions on the Text 

1. What are municipal markets? 2. What is their purpose? 
3. What two kinds are there ? 4. What reason is given for the decline 
of municipal markets in certain places ? 5. What classes of business 
men would naturally oppose city retail markets ? 6. What advan- 
tages do such markets afford the people? 7. What locations are best 
for markets? 8. Why has the desire for municipal markets grown 
recently ? 9. Are markets profitable to the city governments ? 

Questions on your Home City 

10. Do you have city markets? n. What kind? 12. Do all the 
people patronize your retail markets? 13. Are they kept clean and 
sanitary ? 14. What kind of food can be obtained from them ? 



CHAPTER XI 
SMOKE AND NOISE ABATEMENT 

The Smoke Nuisance. — Smoke is the result of only 
a partial burning of fuel. Tiny bits of light unburned wood 
or coal are carried into the air by the chimney draft. Soft, 




The Smoke Nuisance, showing Need for a Factory Zone. 

or bituminous coal, is the chief cause of smoke, and where 
cities use it in great quantities the smoke becomes a 
nuisance. 

We are not quite sure that black smoke in the air is 
a direct menace to health ; but we know that smoke shuts 
out the rays of the sun, especially the blue rays that are 

96 



SMOKE AND NOISE ABATEMENT 



97 



needed both by plants and animals for healthy growth. 
Since sunlight is an enemy of germs and microbes, the less 
light in a city or home, the more disease. 

Besides all this, a smoky or sooty atmosphere discourages 
personal neatness, for no begrimed citizen can appear at 
his best or do his best 
work. A smoky atmos- 
phere makes it difficult 
to preserve cleanliness 
in the house or on the 
street. It interferes 
with the neat display of 
merchandise and there- 
fore hinders business. 
Smoke, like dust, is a 
cause of fog, because 
each little grain of smoke 
or soot gathers moisture, 
and presently the whole 
atmosphere is a fog. 

The soft-coal smoke 
from hundreds of rail- 
road engines and the 
many factories in large 
cities mars the buildings. 
They must have their 
outside walls cleaned 
regularly in order to 
present a respectable 
appearance. It costs from S500 to S2000 annually to keep 
the exterior walls of some of Chicago's skyscrapers clean. 
If the building is faced with granite or stone of any kind, 
the cleaning of the rough surface is just so much more difii- 




Courtesy of Atlantic Terra ( 
Terra-cotta Surfacing. 



9 8 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 



cult and expensive, for the soot and grease sink into the 
pores of the stone. 

Within the last few years scores of giant buildings have 

been constructed with their 
outer surface covered with 
glazed terra-cotta tile, which is 
as hard and smooth as glass, 
to guard against the soot. But 
even these terra-cotta sky- 
scrapers must be washed, and 
it is an expensive process. When 
one counts the hundreds of 
buildings in our large cities, the 
cost of cleaning, due largely to 
smoke, is seen to be enormous. 
The imperfect burning of soft 
coal develops a sticky, tarry 
substance that adheres to the 
smoothest surface, and it is this 
greasy coating that clings to the 
surface of glass windows. The 
office buildings that have the 
best light and ventilation are 
most eagerly sought for, and so 
the window surface in down- 
town buildings is increasing all 
the time. In a great city like 
Philadelphia or Chicago there 
are probably iooo window clean- 
ers hanging in belts against the sides of skyscrapers end- 
lessly cleaning and polishing windows throughout the year, 
at a cost of hundreds of thousands of dollars. 

Then, too, the sooty atmosphere makes necessary the 




Courtesy of Atlantic Terra Cotta Co. 
Woolworth Building, New 
York. Terra-cotta Surface easily 
kept Clean. 



SMOKE AND NOISE ABATEMENT 99 

recalcimining of all interior walls every year. This costs 
in large buildings from three to four thousand dollars a 
year. So it is evident that the item of keeping the busi- 
ness districts of some of the large cities clean from the 
results of smoke alone will run well above a million dollars 
annually. 

Ways of Diminishing Smoke. There are three ways of 
solving the smoke problem. One is by using only those 
fuels that do not produce smoke, such as hard coal or oil. 
Another way is to burn the smoke particles before they 
escape to the air. And still another way is by using cer- 
tain kinds of furnaces that burn soft coal so completely that 
little or no smoke is given off. 

In the eastern part of our country where hard coal is 
almost as cheap as soft coal, it is no hardship to require 
the people to burn only the hard or smokeless kind ; but 
in the Middle West, soft coal is much cheaper and more 
abundant, and the wide use of it cannot be prohibited. 
Hard coal is mined only in the East and, aside from the 
cost of transportation, the supply is not great enough for 
all American needs. 

Oil is employed in Russia as a smokeless fuel, but the 
supply would fail in this country if it were used in the manu- 
facturing industries. In Texas and on the Pacific coast, 
oil is used as fuel for railroad engines. 

There has been much effort expended in trying to perfect 
smoke consumers ; but on account of the high degree of 
heat necessary to consume smoke, the problem has not been 
well solved. Much may be done to bring about a more 
complete burning of soft coal, and also of the smoke within 
the furnace. Furnaces are now made with this end in view. 

One method of reducing smoke is by feeding the fuel 
gradually through the use of artificial stokers, instead of 



ioo CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

feeding a great bulk at one time. In this way the inrush 
of cold air to the furnace when the doors are opened is 
avoided, and much unnecessary smoke is banished. When 
firemen are examined for a license they may, in time, be 
required to know how to fire in a way to avoid sending 
clouds of smoke from their furnaces. 

From railroad engines within city limits comes a vast 
amount of black smoke. In time railroad companies will 
perhaps build a belt line around the outskirts of each city 
and send all through-freight cars around the city rather 
than through it. Then, too, the time is coming when pas- 
senger trains will be required to use electric motors within 
the limits of the large cities. When the freight terminals 
and warehouses for cars destined for other cities are outside 
the city limits, much railroad smoke will be eliminated. 

The Prevention of Noise. — Few realize how the 
frightful noises of city life wear on their nerves. Not 
only are many lives shortened by it, but the energy of all 
is depleted to an astonishing degree. Much of this trying, 
ear-splitting noise might easily be quieted within the city 
limits. Rough pavements such as granite blocks and 
cobblestones make a great din. Such paving may be 
needed on certain streets where the teaming is heavy, but 
in residence sections asphalt or brick pavements will be 
found much quieter. 

Rubber-tired vehicles and automobiles eliminate some 
noise. The automobile does away with the sound of the 
horses' hoofs, but when mufflers are left open they are 
much worse than other noises. Any one willfully running 
a motor car or motor cycle with the muffler open should be 
prosecuted. The open mufflers and horns on motor vehicles 
tear the night into shreds and are the most common 
offenders. 



SMOKE AND NOISE ABATEMENT 101 

Street cars are often our worst noise offenders. Some 
of them create a maddening sound by rocking on their 
springs. In other cases the car tracks are allowed to get 
out of repair, and the people must suffer torture from the 
noises thus made. This would be remedied by the car 
companies if the city authorities insisted on quiet. In 
our larger cities subways are being built for the purpose 
of running both passenger and freight cars underground. 

In some places loud bells and whistles are forbidden, 
because nearly every one carries a watch and there is no 
need of a bell or whistle to call them to church or to work. 
Churches offend worse in this regard, because they are in 
the residence sections. 

Paris levies a tax on pianos because of the nuisance they 
may become to the neighbors. Barking dogs may be 
taxed out of town and howling cats should be taxed no less. 
Street pianos ought to be banished and the calls of peddlers 
and hucksters muffled. Graphophones and victrolas are 
a nuisance in the closely built regions. 

Berlin Ordinances. — Berlin has just adopted, perhaps, 
the strictest noise ordinance of any modern city. They 
forbid loud talking, singing, and shrieking, or any other 
kind of noise likely to disturb the quiet of the streets. No 
windows or doors of houses, flats, shops, or restaurants 
in which music is being played, may be kept open. Team- 
sters in charge of wagons or trucks loaded with resounding 
metal of any kind are forbidden to drive in a manner that 
will cause nerve-shattering noises. Other Berlin laws 
may be of interest here : Swinging of canes or carrying 
umbrellas in a way to endanger others is prohibited. No 
paper, remains of fruit, cigars, or cigarettes may be thrown 
into the street. The dragging of clothes, women's dresses, 
or anything else capable of producing dust, is prohibited. 



102 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

Best of all, authorities in European countries make a 
practice of enforcing their laws strictly, as is not the case 
in America. 

Questions on the Text 

i. Why is smoke unhealthful? 2. What relation is there between 
smoke and fog ? 3. What is smoke? 4. Why is there so much smoke 
in large cities? 5. What is the cost of keeping a modern skyscraper 
clean ? 6. What kind of material is easiest to keep clean ? 7. What 
element in smoke makes window washing so frequent ? 8. What is 
the effect of a smoky atmosphere on the interior of buildings? 
9. Why do eastern cities usually have less smoke than those farther 
west? 10. What advantage has oil as fuel? 11. How may the 
smoke in cities be reduced ? 12. Why should loud noises be reduced ? 
13. Suggest some unnecessary noises in cities. 14. What have 
German cities done to reduce noise ? 

Questions on your Home City 

15. Is yours a smoky city? Why? 16. Do the exteriors of the 
buildings in your city need to be cleaned? 17. Find out how often 
the downtown windows have to be washed. 18. What kind of fuel 
is most used in the city ? 19. What unnecessary noises are allowed ? 
20. Are there any ordinances against noise? 21. Do you think 
church bells should be abolished? 22. Are autos and motor cycles 
careful about noise ? 



CHAPTER XII 
FREIGHT TERMINALS 

Railroad Property in Cities. — Some of our large cities 
are badly riddled by numerous railroad systems with 
their maze of switches and tracks. These roads control, 
besides the main tracks, many side tracks near the business 
center. We cannot blame the railroad companies for this 
unfortunate condition. Much of their property was wisely 
acquired in the early days and has come to be extremely 
valuable. The blame falls upon the city government which 
has taken no thought of the future growth of their com- 
munity and made no plans to prevent the railroads being 
a hindrance to street traffic. The railroad property in 
many cities blocks the natural spreading of the business 
and residence sections, and stands in the way of proper 
planning for the health and convenience of its people. If 
all the railroads entering a city from one direction were 
required to run in on parallel tracks on one common 
right of way, it would remove many of the present 
difficulties. 

In the downtown district of Chicago, the railroads own 
almost half the land acreage and are naturally unwilling 
to part with it or share it in any way that might hinder 
their plans or interfere with their business. These roads 
must deliver their foreign freight to the city, they must 
gather up the outgoing freight, and must transfer freight 
to other lines. Hundreds of factories are scattered over 
the city territory, and each one wishes a switch track on 

103 



104 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

which to load its products. It is a great saving of time and 
teams not to have to haul their goods to a freight house. 

If the factories were massed in one section of the city, 
their outgoing and incoming freight could be handled by a 
few tracks with greatly reduced cost to the railroads, and 
far less inconvenience to street traffic and city plan- 
ning. But since the factories are already here, they must, 
however widely scattered, have switching accommoda- 
tions. 

Freight Terminal Nuisance. — To provide quick and 
cheap means of handling goods coming and going by rail, 
good freight terminals are needed. Thousands of freight 
cars are hauled into the center of a large city by various 
railroads, switched to other tracks, and shipped out again 
unopened. Other cars are shipped in by hundreds, unloaded, 
and their contents carted through the streets to warehouses. 
In a few weeks' time or perhaps a few days the contents 
are carted away again and shipped to another city. 

All this adds to the noise, smoke, and congestion of the 
business district. Much of this trouble might be avoided 
if a freight and warehouse center were established outside 
the city limits. Here all goods intended for sale in other 
cities could be stored, and the freight cars designed for other 
cities could be switched to the proper roads. The noise 
and smoke of many freight engines is eliminated when these 
freight cars are sent around the city rather than through 
it. Much of the freight intended for the city might be 
sent in from the freight center through an underground 
railroad operated by electricity. 

To care for the incoming and outgoing freight belonging 
to the city, between the railroad stations and the heart 
of the city retail and wholesale districts; to provide the 
necessary factory switches ; and to wipe out, at the same 



FREIGHT TERMINALS 



IO: 



time, the maze of tracks within the city limits, is an enor- 
mous problem. 

The present plan, whereby each railroad gathers up its 
own freight, is an unnecessary expense to the road and an 
inconvenience to the shipper. If a shipper has a dozen 
different boxes of goods each destined for a different person 




Congested Freight Terminal, Kansas City. 



living at a different point on as many different railroads, 
he cannot deliver them all at the branch freight station 
most convenient to him. He must load them on trucks and 
haul them through the downtown freight district from one 
terminal freight house to the other until they are distributed. 
It would be much better for the shipper if he could deliver 
all his freight at one terminal and have it sent to the proper 
roads somewhere beyond the city limits. 



io6 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 



New Orleans Solves the Problem. — New Orleans was 
formerly cut up by railroads. Some of them owned the 
river frontage and there were almost innumerable tracks, 
yet the shippers were poorly served. There were many 
complaints to the effect that some parts of the city were 
better favored than others. With all this network of 
tracks, the railroads could not handle the freight properly. 




Freight Terminal, New Orleans, showing Need for Systematic Arrangement. 

This southern metropolis finally banished " gang rule " 
from the city hall and started an improvement. 

Seven miles of water front are now owned and controlled 
by the city. More than twenty big wharves have been 
built with public money and fitted with steel warehouses 
for the storage of freight, and with modern machinery for 
the quick and easy handling of all kinds of cargoes trans- 
ported by water. 

But still more important to the business and manufac- 



FREIGHT TERMINALS 



107 



turing interests of the city were the railroad freight ter- 
minals. The city has planned and built a belt line which 
runs around the city, tapping all the incoming roads. 
From this belt line, switches are run to the various factories 
and to the business and warehouse districts. The incoming 
freight cars of all the roads are switched beyond the city 




Courtesy of Department of WkOTHS, Dork- Philadelphia. 

Southwark Piers, Delaware River, Philadelphia. A Pleasing Contrast to 
the Ordinary Docks. 



limits to the belt line, which delivers them to the proper 
destination to be unloaded and returned to the road. The 
out-bound freight of all the railroads is collected by the 
same belt line with its numerous switches, and delivered 
to the proper road at the city limits. 

A few switching engines collect and distribute all city 
freight, both car loads and smaller lots, thereby banishing 



io8 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

from the city limits hundreds of half-loaded engines belong- 
ing to the separate railroads with their noise and smoke, 
and greatly reducing the cost to the roads. A city-owned 
belt railroad treats all shippers alike ; it makes the transfer 
of water and land freight convenient; and it also serves 
the city in transporting garbage far out into the swamps, 
where it is dumped to fill up low ground which will later 
be used as farm lands. In times of flood it serves to carry, 
in a prompt manner, sand, stone, and other materials to 
strengthen the dikes, or levees, at the points of danger. 

Other Cities Adopt the Plan. — This plan of a belt line 
has been adopted by Cleveland and Philadelphia, and has 
solved many transportation problems. It serves the people 
quickly and fairly ; eliminates unnecessary trackage and 
freight houses ; and banishes much of the noise, smoke, 
and congestion from the downtown city streets. 

City Control of Docks and Wharves. — In cities that 
have water transportation it is important that the docks 
and wharves be accessible to all railroads. If the river or 
lake front is controlled by one of the roads, it makes the 
transfer of goods from water to rail an inconvenient affair. 
New Orleans, as we have seen, solved this question by city- 
owned docks, connecting them with the belt line, which 
serves all the railroads. Chicago is building docks to be 
owned and controlled by the city, but no arrangement is 
made to give all the railroads access to it. Philadelphia 
has also obtained control of nearly a mile of river front, 
where municipal docks and wharves are building. These 
will connect with the city-owned belt line. 



FREIGHT TERMINALS 109 

Questions on the Text 

I. Who is to blame that the cities are so badly cut up with numerous 
railroad properties? 2. How does this hinder communication be- 
tween different sections of a city? 3. Does it affect the way a city 
might grow? 4. What advantage would it be to have all factories 
massed in one section of the city ? 5. How is it possible to prevent 
bringing in and out of a city the freight cars that are destined for 
foreign points? 6. Where should the warehouse center be located, 
within or without the city limits ? 7. What advantage comes from a 
belt line about the city, like the one at New Orleans ? 8. Why is it 
better for the city to own such a belt line ? 9. Why should the city 
docks be available to all railroads ? 10. Name two large American 
cities that own their docks. 

Questions on your Home City 

II. How many railroads enter your city ? 1 2. Does each one have 
its own right of way or do several roads run parallel on one common 
right of way? 13. Do the railroad properties close up many of your 
streets? 14. Do the railroads carry their freight destined to foreign 
parts through your city ? 



CHAPTER XIII 
CITY PASSENGER TRANSPORTATION 

The Transportation Problem. — One of the greatest 
city problems of to-day is that of transportation. Men 
must get to and from business quickly and cheaply, and 




Courtesy of Baltimore & Ohio Railroad. 
Baltimore & Ohio Passenger Car in 1830. 

they will live as far out in the suburbs as speedy transit 
and cheap fare will allow. People whose working hours 
are long cannot afford to spend too much time on the 
way; and those whose wages are low cannot afford the 



CITY PASSENGER TRANSPORTATION in 

expense of carfare. It is these two factors of transit and 
fare that force thousands of people to be huddled together 
in tenements near their places of work. 

Solving the Problem. — Steam Roads. — In greater 
cities the steam roads have a large share of transporting 
the workers and business men back and forth from the busi- 
ness district to their suburban homes. Steam trains usually 
make better time than surface, elevated, or subway car 
lines ; but, as a rule, the fare is higher. However, a large 
number of well-to-do people are willing to pay the extra 
fare, provided that they can be served by fast trains. So 
steam roads that cater to suburban passengers have used 
every possible means to reduce their schedule time. 

In running fast trains through the city many accidents 
occur, and not a few lives are lost at the crossings, which 
means thousands of dollars collected as damages from the 
railroads by the injured parties. In one year (1899), in 
the ten largest cities of the United States, there were 800 
deaths from railroad accidents. Partly to reduce damages 
and largely to comply with the demands of the city councils, 
the roads attempted to lessen the danger by employing a 
flagman or gateman at every crossing. In spite of this 
precaution accidents still happen. Moreover, it is a great 
expense to the railroad company to employ so many men 
at crossings. 

To overcome the necessity for gatemen, to lessen the 
number of accidents, and to permit faster suburban service, 
the railroad men saw that they must either elevate their 
rails so that the streets would pass beneath the tracks or 
else lower their roadbeds into subways so that the street 
crossings would be overhead. Roads that could afford the 
expense have solved the problem in most cases by elevat- 
ing their tracks upon embankments. 



112 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 



To elevate tracks and eliminate grade crossings is a very 
costly improvement. It has cost the railroads millions of 
dollars; but as there seemed no other solution of the 
difficulty, they have gone about the task vigorously, and 
in the last twenty years thousands of miles of track within 
city limits have been elevated. 

The Illinois Central began this movement in Chicago in 




Doing away with Dangerous Crossings in a Pleasing Manner, Chicago. 



1892, raising 28 miles of track and eliminating 13 grade 
crossings, at a cost of two million dollars. In the 
same city the Lake Shore followed a few years later by 
elevating 60 miles of track and doing away with 43 grade 
crossings, at a cost of three million dollars. In six years 
the railroads had spent in Chicago, alone, nearly twenty 
million dollars. And so the movement has progressed 
marvelously, not only in Chicago, but in Philadelphia and 
hundreds of other cities throughout the country. The 
chief roads of New York City have built a huge subway for 



CITY PASSENGER TRANSPORTATION 



TI 3 








! 



ii 4 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

their tracks, and above them is now a beautiful broad 
avenue which is becoming a great civic center and along 
which are line hotels and other buildings. 

Aside from the immense saving of human life, which is 
the chief concern, each community has received great benefit 
in the shortening of the schedule time of their trains. This 
has induced many people to make their homes in the 
suburbs, so the railroads have gained by the increased 
traffic and have learned that track elevation or track 
depression is, after all, real economy. 

Street Cars. — Since the steam roads cannot accommodate 
all the suburbs, and since many people desire quick car- 
riage for short distances, other means of rapid transit have 
been employed. Street cars of various kinds have been 
invented and put to use. The early street cars were drawn 
by horse power, but this was slow and unsatisfactory, 
especially in cities with steep grades. San Francisco 
wished to build a car line on a street where the grade was 
too steep for horse power, so a cable car line which proved 
very satisfactory was built. 

Cable cars are drawn by an underground cable or rope. 
Along between the rails underground is a conduit, or small 
tunnel, in which runs an endless wire-rope cable guided by 
pulleys. Along the top of the conduit is a slot that permits 
an iron grip extending down from the bottom of the car 
to enter the conduit. This grip is provided with jaws to 
grasp the moving wire rope. The grip is operated from the 
platform of the car by grasping or unloosing its hold upon 
the moving cable. The cable at certain points is wound 
around a huge drum, which is rotated by powerful engines ; 
and this keeps the cable always moving. 

For a time it was believed that cable cars could only 
operate on straight car lines with steep grades, but it was 



CITY PASSENGER TRANSPORTATION 115 

not long till Chicago introduced them on level lines with 
sharp and difficult curves, and they were operated in all 
kinds of weather. The use of cable cars spread rapidly, 
and soon a score of American cities were using them. In 
1 89 1 there were 70 cable car lines in our cities, with nearly 
700 miles of track. But some time before this the electric 




Cnurtoy of New York Central Railroad. 

A Suburban Electric Train. 

traction car had been perfected, and when that came into 
use the mileage of cable diminished at once. 

The greater advantages in using electricity for traction 
power was soon appreciated in American cities. In New 
York, Boston, Chicago, and hundreds of smaller cities, 
the electric trolley system quickly supplanted cable cars 
and doubled the speed of the cars. Faster schedules sent 
thousands of people to the suburbs, since now they could 
get to the heart of the city quickly and cheaply. 

As the cities grew, the traffic on certain streets in the 



n6 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

downtown districts of New York, Chicago, and Boston 
became so heavy that surface cars could not make good 
speed on account of the crush of teams and vehicles moving 
in both directions. Men saw that as the cities continued 
to grow, this congestion of traffic would become even 
greater, and that there must be some better location of 
car tracks. 

Elevated Car Lines. — New York soon built an elevated 
car line. On this elevated line steam locomotives were 
first used, and the fast trains gave splendid service. The 
elevated line, however, has its drawbacks. The noise is 
unpleasant and wearing on the nerves of the passengers and 
those living near the elevation. Moreover, the elevated 
structure destroys the beauty of streets and shuts out much 
sunlight. Notwithstanding such objections, our larger 
cities have developed extensive elevated lines which now 
use electricity for traction power. 

Subways. — But elevated and surface cars and steam 
roads have not been able to keep pace with the increasing 
need for passenger transportation. New York, therefore, 
following the example of London, built a great four-track 
underground, or subway, system on which run local and fast 
express trains. The speed is faster and the service better 
than that of either surface or elevated lines. Boston has 
also constructed a subway for the business district and 
Chicago, which already has a subway for freight transpor- 
tation under the business district, is now planning an 
extensive subway for passenger service. 

The Graft Evil. — The reason why street car com- 
panies in some cities cannot reduce fares is because the 
company has " watered the stock." By this is meant that 
a company, for example, builds and equips a car line at a 
cost of say $100,000. Instead of issuing exactly this amount 



CITY PASSENGER TRANSPORTATION 117 




Courtesy ■>/ New York Central Railroad. 

Main Waiting Room, New York Central Terminal. New York. 



MIlHllh lift,-. 




Courtesy of Pennsylvania Railroad. 

Pennsylvania Station, New York. 



n8 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

of stock, which is the honest procedure, the company doubles 
the amount by issuing $200,000 in stock and sells it to the 
stockholders, many of whom do not know that it is half 
" water." The men who organized the company pocket 
the difference between the cost of the road and the amount 
of stock sold. It would be an easy matter to pay a good 
interest on the hundred thousand dollars honestly invested 
in the road and still give the people cheap fares. But the 
company insists that the fares must be kept high enough 
to pay dividends on the entire two hundred thousand 
dollars, consequently the fares are double what they by 
right should be. 

The Remedy. — The American people are coming to 
realize that " watering the stock " of railroad and street 
car and other public service companies is an injustice to 
the public, and the time is not far distant when it will be 
unlawful to sell more stock than represents the actual in- 
vestment in the property. When the " water is all squeezed 
out " of our transportation companies, the fares will be 
reduced, and this will enable more people to move towards 
the suburbs where there is less crowding, more health, and 
greater happiness. 

City-owned Car Lines. — The city of San Francisco now 
owns and operates a part of its street car lines. Chicago 
has a plan whereby a part of the net profits of the privately 
owned car lines must be paid to the city, and this money is 
accumulating in large amounts to be used probably for a 
future subway. It is likely that American cities will come 
more and more to own and operate their car lines. 



CITY PASSENGER TRANSPORTATION 119 

Questions on the Text 

1 . What two elements cause people to crowd together in tenements ? 
2. Compare steam roads with electric car lines for speed. 3. Where 
do the largest number of deaths from train accidents occur ? 4. How 
is the danger overcome in many cities? 5. Why was there need of 
elevating tracks? 6. What results followed? 7. How did cable 
car lines originate ? 8. How do cable cars run ? 9. Why did they 
decline ? 10. In what way is the electric line superior to the cable ? 
1 1 . What are subways and what are their merits ? 12. What is meant 
by "watering stock"? 13. What American cities own and operate 
street car lines ? 

Questions on your Home City 

14. Have the steam roads of your city elevated their tracks? 
15. Does your city have elevated electric roads? 16. Why or why 
not? 17. Has your city a subway? 18. Do any of the car lines 
belong to the city? 19. Do you know of any city where the fares 
are cheaper than in your city ? 20. Are enough cars always fur- 
nished to allow each passenger a seat ? Why or why not ? 



CHAPTER XIV 

PUBLIC HIGHWAYS 

Free Highways. — One of the first needs of any com- 
munity is good roads and streets, so that people may move 
about freely to and from business. Some of the best 
highways in our country have been roads and bridges built 
by private parties for the use of the public, but a toll, or 
fee, is charged every time anyone uses these roads or bridges. 
People naturally dislike this charge for using roads and the 
inconvenience of having to pay each time, so to-day most 
communities have free public roads. 

Every property owner along whose premises a road or 
street passes must give to the public a strip wide enough for 
the needs of the highway. Thus the entire community 
owns in common the roads and the streets. The village 
or city usually owns the streets from sidewalk to sidewalk, 
including the parkways on both sides of the street. Country 
roads in the same manner belong to the county. 

Improving Roads and Streets. — It is not enough merely 
to have a strip of land for a road ; it must be drained, graded, 
and made into a good highway. In the country, roads are 
made usable in one of two ways. The voters and land 
owners either pay a road tax which is used to improve the 
road, or each voter and property owner works on the road 
so many days each year to pay his tax. But city streets 
cannot be paved and kept up in this way. An expert 
road builder must do the work of paving, if it is to be well 
done. Street paving is a costly improvement, but after 



PUBLIC HIGHWAYS 



121 



it is done the property along the paved street is more 
valuable. 

The cost of paving a street is sometimes paid by bonding 
the entire city. In this case each taxpayer bears his por- 
tion, but the more common method is to apportion the cost 
to the owners of the abutting property, each man paying 
according to the width of his lot. The property owner 
is not required to pay this all at one time, though he may 





Courtesy of Wamcr-Quittlan Asphalt Co. 

Laying Asphalt Paving. 

do so if he chooses. The assessment, as it is called, is 
spread over a number of years, and each year a part of this 
cost, together with the interest, must be paid. If a prop- 
erty owner refuses to pay his assessments his property 
may be sold and enough of the proceeds used for this pur- 
pose. The balance is returned to the original owner. The 
same method is used to build sewers in the streets. Do 
you think it is just that men who do not have a team or a 



122 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

motor car should be required to pay for the paving of their 
frontage ? 

Methods of Paving. — Streets need to be paved accord- 
ing to the use that is to be made of them. Where teaming 
and traffic is heavy, the best wear-resisting material, such 
as granite blocks, is used. Such streets are noisy. Bricks, 
which make the next best wearing pavements, are also noisy. 
Boulevards and residence streets where there is little or no 
heavy traffic should have a smoother, quieter pavement, 
like asphalt or macadam. Asphalt is the most popular 
material for paving streets in residential sections. 

A good method of constructing a granite block street is 
as follows : Excavate the bed of the street to a depth of 
fifteen or sixteen inches. Level the street bed and roll it 
with a heavy steam roller. Mix a medium stiff concrete 
and fill in to a depth of six to eight inches. After this has 
formed a perfect union throughout the street bed, fill in 
with fine sand to a depth of one to two inches. This forms 
a cushion for the granite blocks to rest upon. 

The blocks are now laid separately in just the position 
each belongs. When the blocks are so placed, a portion of 
the sand from beneath slips in between the blocks and keeps 
them slightly apart. At intervals of about fifty feet a little 
wider space is left between the blocks to serve as an ex- 
pansion joint. This expansion joint is filled with either 
melted tar or cement grout. The purpose of both is to 
serve as a binder to hold the blocks together in one mass. 
Tar is the easier to use correctly, as great care must be 
exercised to have the grout of uniform consistency. No 
matter which binder is used, the expansion joints are filled 
with tar in order to take up the swelling of the street during 
a spell of warm weather. Expansion joints are also usually 
laid along the gutter. 



PUBLIC HIGHWAYS 123 

The construction for brick streets is practically the 
same. In both granite and brick streets the length of 
the blocks runs across the street and not with the street. 
In streets where car tracks are located, the blocks or 
bricks are laid with the rail for a distance of eighteen inches 
on either side. 

With sheet asphalt a concrete base is laid in the same 
manner as for brick streets. On this is spread several 
inches of stone, crushed to half the size of an egg. The 
stone is cooked in tar long enough for the tar to thoroughly 
permeate every pore and crack of the stone. This layer is 
then rolled with the steam roller. Then a layer of coarse 
asphalt is put on and thoroughly rolled. On top of this 
comes the last layer, asphalt of finer grain. This is rolled 
over and over again until the surface is as smooth as a 
cement sidewalk. The street is then covered with sand 
and closed to traffic for a day or two. 

The streets of many cities have steep grades or hills 
where a smooth pavement is not satisfactory because horses' 
feet cannot get a firm hold, especially in icy weather 
rough cobblestone or granite block is needed to furnish a 
foothold for teams. The road surface on steep grades also 
needs to be such that it will not readily wash away during 
heavy storms. 

Giving away Street Rights. — We understand, then, that 
the streets of a city belong to the public or the entire com- 
munity, and that no one citizen has more right to their use 
than another. However, the city government may give 
away certain rights to use the streets to what are called 
public service corporations, that is, to street railway com- 
panies for laying tracks and running cars, to gas companies 
who wish to lay gas pipes under them, and to telephone 
and electric light companies who wish to put their poles 



124 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

in the parkway. In some cities the waterworks with their 
piping in the streets belong to private companies. 

Street Car Franchises. — In most cities where large 
numbers of people wish to ride on street cars every day, the 
street car business is very valuable, and there is a keen 
desire among men of wealth to get the right to operate the 
car system. Other public service companies also desire to 
use the city's highways. The right to use the streets has 
usually been granted by the city council to corporations in 
the form of a franchise or written law or ordinance. This 
states how long the company may use the streets, what 
charges they may impose upon their patrons, and other con- 
ditions. These franchises are contracts between the city 
and the company, and a contract of this sort is very binding. 
If the city gets the worst of the bargain, the people must 
bear the consequences till the term of years expires. 

So valuable are these rights that very often in the past 
unfair means have been used to secure votes in the city 
council to gain an ordinance agreeable to the public service 
companies. It is a disgrace that men who have been elected 
to the council to look after the welfare of the people and the 
city as a whole, will grant away the public rights for a long 
term of years as a personal favor or for a bribe. For this 
reason we must see to it that honorable men be chosen for 
office in the council. 

To prevent the people's interests in the streets being 
granted away without a fair return in service to the 
public, many cities now require that all franchise ordinances 
must be submitted to the citizens at an election before 
they become a law. In the past, long-term franchises 
were common, some running for ninety-nine years, or even 
forever ; but now the custom is to give franchises for from 
fifteen to twenty-five years, so the people at no distant 



PUBLIC HIGHWAYS 125 

date will have a chance under changing conditions to make 
a new and perhaps a fairer contract with the company. 

The larger the city, the more valuable are the street 
franchises, and the custom now holds in many places of 
regulating the price of carfares, of gas and telephone rates 
by ordinance and by short-term franchises, so that the rate 
may change as the city grows. This prevents the com- 
panies from oppressing the people. In some cities the 
franchise requires the company to turn over to the city a 
certain per cent of their profits. In other words, since the 
company's gains come from using the people's streets the 
company must divide profits with the people. 

Car companies often fail to give good service. They 
sometimes use rickety, worn-out cars ; they allow tracks 
to get out of repair ; they refuse to put on enough cars so 
that all passengers may have seats. They overcrowd cars, 
forcing many people who are already weary from a day's 
labor, to stand up and hang to a strap for a ride of several 
miles. It costs more money to run two cars than to run 
one, and every dollar saved helps to line the pockets of the 
stockholders in the company. Many cities, especially in 
Europe, own and operate their own car systems, giving the 
people cheaper fares and serving the public more satis- 
factorily. 

Gas Piping, etc., in Public Streets. — Houses and build- 
ings in the city need gas for lighting, heat, and sometimes 
for power ; so there must be a system of gas pipes under- 
ground. The most convenient place to lay such pipes is 
through the streets, because in that case the gas company 
needs only the permission of the village council ; whereas 
if the pipes were put on private property, there would be 
many people to consult and many objections made. 

There are two objections to gas mains in the streets. 



126 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

The hard, well-paved streets must be torn up every time 
repairs are needed or leaks discovered, and it is impossible 
to repair the paving as smoothly and solidly as it was before. 
For this reason our streets are uneven in places because of 
bumps and depressions caused by tearing up the pavements. 
Moreover, traffic is hindered by digging in the streets, and 
this means much inconvenience to the public. The trouble 
might be avoided to some extent by laying gas pipes in the 
parkways, but repairs there would destroy grass, shrubs, 
and trees. (See p. 56.) 

The second objection to gas pipes in the streets is that 
the pipes often leak slightly in many places, and such leaks 
may go undiscovered for years. The gas spreads through 
the soil and gradually kills the fine shade trees and shrubs 
that line the streets in every beautiful city. It requires 
fifty years and more to grow our noblest trees, and they 
are quickly destroyed by escaping gas. 

Telephone and Electric Light Wiring. — The tele- 
phone and light companies need poles to support their 
wires, and again the streets are found to be the only con- 
venient place for them. So nearly every city and town has 
hundreds of ungainly poles in the parkway of every street. 
If there happens to be more than one telephone or lighting 
company, it only multiplies the number of poles. The 
wires must in places run through the trees, and the com- 
pany's workmen are frequently allowed to cut the branches 
of beautiful trees until they are ruined. It is possible to 
run telephone and lighting wires underground either in 
pipes or in tunnels. Tunnels for this use are very costly, 
but pipes through which the wires pass are used in many 
cities. (See p. 56.) 

In the greater cities there is a large tunnel under each 
street. Through this tunnel may run the water, gas, and 



PUBLIC HIGHWAYS 127 

sewage pipes, besides cables containing wires for the tele- 
phone and lighting companies. This does away with the 
unsightly poles and dangerous wires, and enables all pipes 
to be inspected and kept in repair without tearing up the 
streets, for the tunnels may be made large enough for work- 
men to pass through them. The service companies in 
large cities should be required to help build tunnels which 
would accommodate all these public conveniences, instead 
of having in different places under every street half a dozen 
pipes which have to be torn up separately for repairs. 

Public Ownership of Public Service Plants. — It costs 
a great deal of money for a city to buy or build their street 
railways, to construct telephone or gas plants ; and few 
of our cities have the money to do this. But the time seems 
to be coming when more of these public concerns that use 
the people's streets will belong entirely to the people. 
Some citizens are opposed to public ownership, because 
they dislike to see everything fall into the hands of un- 
principled politicians, but when the time comes we shall 
place only expert men in control of our city governments. 
This will be the only plan. In many countries in Europe 
the cities own and operate all these public service plants, 
and where this is done money is saved for the people. 

Street Advertising. — In many American cities mer- 
chants are permitted to extend signs out over the public 
sidewalks in order to attract more attention. No attempt 
is made to have these advertising signs beautiful and artistic. 
On the contrary, they are often gaudy and high-colored. 
These unlovely placards are flashed in the faces of the 
passers-by at every turn. Large American cities have for- 
bidden the extension of signs over the sidewalks, and all 
towns should follow their example. Perhaps the time will 
come when we shall forbid unsightly advertising on vacant 



128 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

lots where signs offend the taste and feelings of every one 
passing. 

Civic Lessons from German Cities. — Certain German 
cities have taught us noble lessons in civic beauty in the 
matter of signs and billboards. They are proud of their 
cities, and will permit nothing to mar the beauty of their 
streets. No citizen may put up a business sign until his 
plans have been approved by the city official. On street 
corners are towers for the display of advertising. Each 
tower is about four feet through and fifteen feet high. The 
tower is covered with printed announcements, advertising 
what is going on in the concert halls and theaters. It 
gives a plan of the city, the location of the nearest police 
station, post office, hospital, and like information valuable 
to strangers. On this tower is also some advertising in 
frames, but nothing repulsive or unpleasing is tolerated. 
No bills are allowed to be posted on walls, and all who wish 
to advertise by means of billboards or posters must either 
use these towers or have men to distribute handbills. 
This lesson in banishing uncouth billboards is badly needed 
in our American cities. 

Questions on the Text 

i . Why do people want free public highways instead of toll roads ? 
2. Who owns the streets? 3. Does the parkway belong to the 
adjoining property owners or to the city ? 4. Who keeps the park- 
ways clean? 5. How is paving paid for? 6. What is the difference 
between the bonding plan and the assessment plan ? 7. Name several 
kinds of paving material. 8. What are the merits of each ? 9. De- 
scribe a good method of laying granite blocks and bricks. 10. How 
are asphalt streets laid? 11. What are the difficulties in paving 
steep hills? 12. How does the street car company get permission 
to use the streets? 13. What dishonesty has been practiced in the 
past to secure franchise? 14. How and why does the city have a 
voice in the charge made by public service companies ? 



PUBLIC HIGHWAYS 129 

Questions on your Home City 

15. How are the streets in your business section paved ? 16. Your 
residence streets ? 17. Which pavements do you like best and why ? 
18. Is the bonding plan or the assessment used to pay for paving in 
your city ? 19. Where do the gas pipes of your city run ? 20. Have 
you ever known a leaky gas pipe to kill a tree ? 21. Does your city 
own its own car lines? 22. Its gas plant? 23. Its electric light plant ? 
24. Its water plant? 25. Are your streets and parkways crowded 
with poles? 26. How have some cities banished poles? 27. What 
do you think of the billboards and street advertising in your city ? 
28. If an attempt was made to introduce the German plan of adver- 
tising, what classes of people would probably oppose it ? 



CHAPTER XV 
TREES FOR STREETS 

The Trees Destroyed. — When America was first settled, 
the country was largely covered with unbroken forests. 
Such was the task of clearing away the trees to make places 
for homes and farm lands that men came to regard the trees 
as enemies to be destroyed rather than as friends to be pro- 
tected. The forest-covered country was so vast that no 
one dreamed that there would ever come a time when we 
should find ourselves in need of trees. Where cities were 
to be built the forests were all cleared away, there being no 
attempt or no thought of preserving parks and playgrounds 
with stately shade trees. 

A Recent Awakening. — But now that our cities have 
grown so marvelously in population and in wealth, the 
people have come to wish for beautiful places in which to 
live, comfortable homes with attractive surroundings, and 
fine streets and shaded parks. They are awaking to the 
fact that nothing adds more to the health and attractiveness 
of cities and towns than beautiful trees. 

Value of Trees to the City. — On every city street should 
be planted rows of trees of the same variety. Trees have 
a restful effect; they furnish shade above the hot pave- 
ments ; and because of their grace and beauty, they are a 
source of pleasure at all seasons of the year. In winter we 
enjoy the outlines of their branches ; in the spring, the burst- 
ing of their buds and foliage; in summer, the delightful 
shade ; and in autumn, the brilliant coloring. 

130 



TREES FOR STREETS 131 

Not only are trees beautiful and interesting, but they 
are important from the standpoint of health for the city 
dwellers. Trees help to purify the air by absorbing the 
carbonic acid gas that is breathed off by man and that is 
poisonous to him ; and in exchange for this gas the trees 
give back oxygen, which men need. Trees also help to 
modify the temperature of the streets, making life more 
comfortable for the residents. 

The usual heat of summer is made more intense by the 




Street made Beautiful with Maples, Cleveland. 

reflection from pavements and buildings. Heat is re- 
flected just as light is from a mirror or other smooth sur- 
face. The foliage of the trees cuts off much of the direct 
heat of the sun, and also some of the reflected heat from 
the pavements. Trees also lower temperature by giving 
off through their leaves moisture on hot days when relief 
is especially needed. As the moisture is evaporated from 
the surface of the leaves it takes up heat from the air, 
leaving it cooler and less oppressive. The Commissioner 



132 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

of Health of New York in 1872 declared that the high 
death rate among children during the hot weather was 
caused by excessive heat, and the Health Department 
recommended the planting of shade trees on all streets and 
avenues to reduce the heat. 

Trees also, on account of their beauty, add to the value 
of property. They are among the first things that impress 
a stranger in a new city. But more important than this 
is the fact that the combined influence of many fine trees 
makes every one happier and better. 

No city in America possesses such avenues of fine shade 
trees as our capital city of Washington. Visitors to this 
city admire the magnificent public buildings, but they all 
agree that the beautiful avenues of shade trees which make 
the city one glorious park are its chief attraction. In 
Paris, too, we find trees almost innumerable, and these 
comprise a large part of the splendor of the French capital. 

Qualities of a Good Street Tree. — Good judgment must 
be used in the selection of trees for street planting. There 
are many things to consider. Street trees are usually 
unprotected from heavy storms and must have sufficient 
strength to resist wind, sleet, and snow. There should be 
knowledge of how the tree appears when it is full grown. 
A symmetrical outline is important, the leaves should re- 
main in a healthy condition throughout the summer, and 
those that show color in the autumn are desirable. The 
falling of leaves, twigs, bark, and flowers or fruit keeps the 
sidewalk in an untidy condition, while slippery fruit is 
both untidy and dangerous. There are only a few trees 
that are entirely free from insect pests, yet some trees are 
so much less affected than others that they are to be pre- 
ferred. 

Trees should not have a foliage that is too dense, else 



TREES FOR STREETS 133 

the sunlight cannot penetrate to the ground so the grass 
can grow under them. On the other hand, if the tree has 
an open scraggly head, it does not afford adequate shade 
during hot weather. The ideal street tree is of medium 
size and of a long-lived variety. Quick-growing trees have 
wood that is soft and easily broken, so they are short lived. 
Money and time spent in planting such trees is wasted. 

There are not many kinds of trees that are suitable for 
street planting in any locality. It is not easy to find trees 
that are sufficiently hard to withstand city conditions, 
long lived, easy to transplant, straight and symmetrical in 
growth, immune from insect attack, and free from the litter 
of flowers and fruit. The street trees in Washington have 
been under municipal control since 1872. Thirty or more 
varieties have been tested, and only ten or twelve have 
been found satisfactory. Paris has tested a hundred varie- 
ties, and found only eleven that bore the conditions well. 

City Control and Care. — About the only way to have 
the best trees chosen for a long street and to secure the 
proper distance between them, is for the city to take entire 
charge of the tree planting and assume the care of trees in 
the parkways. If it is left to the property owners, some 
prefer one kind and some another variety, and every house- 
holder will crowd the trees on his lot. If the planting is 
left to real estate men, they will choose the quick-growing 
varieties regardless of how the trees will appear when 
mature, for their purpose is to make an early showing in 
order to dispose of their property in the shortest time. 

It requires special training to care for trees properly, 
and the best results are obtained when a tree expert is 
employed to take charge of the city trees. The larger 
American cities now have their city foresters, who superin- 
tend the planting and pruning of trees. They also protect 



134 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 



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Fighting Tree Insects along City Streets. 

them from insect enemies as well as from the careless em- 
ployees of telephone and lighting companies who string their 
wires along the parkways. 

One of the citizens of Harrisburg was one day going 
along a street when he saw a man cutting off the branches 
of a large tree in front of his property, leaving nothing but 
the big trunk. Upon being asked why he was spoiling 
the tree, the man replied : "I can make use of the wood, 
and don't care for the shade." As there were no city or- 
dinances in regard to shade trees, the man was allowed to 
go on with his work while his neighbors protested in vain, 
and the tree was left mutilated and unsightly, an eyesore 
to the residents of the whole street. 

There is no greater mistake than planting trees too close 
together. They should always be far enough apart to 
permit each to develop perfectly. Forty feet is the aver- 



TREES FOR STREETS 135 

age distance, and some, like the elm and sugar maple, 
should be forty-five feet or more apart. Trees should be 
set eight feet from lamp posts and ten feet from water 
hydrants. Only one species should be allowed on a street. 

Popular Shade Trees. - The Carolina poplar, or cotton- 
wood, is a poor tree. It will, if untouched, grow too large ; 
the wood is weak and extremely brittle, and storms often 
break so many limbs as to disfigure the tree. It sends 
out close to the surface roots which may in time crack con- 
crete walks, while the smaller roots are likely to enter 
sewer pipes and clog them. The Carolina poplar has so 
many bad habits and so few good points that many towns 
have forbidden the planting of them. 

Of all the trees planted in the city of Washington, the 
oaks make the finest appearance. There are in the city 
about five miles of streets planted with pin oaks. They 
are shaped like a pyramid with slender branches stretching 
out horizontally. The leaves of the pin oak turn a deep 
scarlet in autumn and fall late in the season. 

Another beautiful street in Washington is lined with the 
red oak, which is one of the most desirable street trees. 
There is no American tree more prized in Europe, and it 
has been cultivated there for two centuries. It grows 
faster than any other native oak, forming a round-shaped 
head, and its leaves have a richness of color possessed by 
few other trees. 

Fine as are the pin oak and the red oak, the scarlet oak 
is coming to be looked upon as superior to both. It is 
very hardy and grows rapidly, too. The scarlet oak has 
the most gorgeous autumn coloring. The white oak is a 
noble tree, but it is not so desirable as the other varieties 
for street use. 

As a shade tree the American linden, also known as bass- 



136 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

wood, has many good points. It is a vigorous grower and 
forms a dense shade. However, it has so many insect 
enemies that it is not often chosen to meet city conditions. 

The white or American elm stands alone for its special 
kind of beauty. No other tree combines such strength 
with so many graceful curves. It is beautiful at all seasons 
of the year. In spite of its many insect enemies it will 
always be popular. 

The Norway maple appears to be the best maple for street 
use. It resists insects well. It does not grow so large as 
the native hard maple. The trees should be set about 
thirty-eight feet apart. The Norway maple bursts into 
profuse bloom in the latter part of April or early May. 
It is very hard and easily transplanted. It is always 
attractive, putting forth leaves earlier in the spring and re- 
taining its foliage later in the fall than our native maple. 

The sugar maple is hardy, shapely, and an ornament to 
any street. It may grow to a height of fifty feet or more 
and should not be set closer than forty feet. Most of the 
splendor of our autumn foliage is due to the brilliant color- 
ing of the sugar maple. Even during the winter this tree 
is attractive because of its symmetry. While it is so beau- 
tiful, the sugar maple, because of dust, smoke, and count- 
less insect enemies, does not thrive in cities so well as some 
other trees. 

The red maple makes a good street tree. It is somewhat 
softer than the Norway or sugar maple, but resists ordinary 
storms well. 

The trees and shrubs of our city streets and parks should 
all be permanently marked with tags giving their common 
names as well as their scientific names. This is an oppor- 
tunity for teaching the public that is often neglected by 
city authorities. 



TREES FOR STREETS 137 

Questions on the Text 

1. Why do most Americans have so little appreciation of trees? 
2. Why do we have trees in our parkways ? 3. What American city 
is most noted for its street trees ? 4. How are trees said to affect 
health? 5. How do they affect summer temperature? 6. What 
qualities are desired in a street tree ? 7. Which is better to have, city 
control or private control of tree planting on the streets ? 8. Why ? 
9. What are the duties of a city forester? 10. What can you say of 
the distances between trees? 11. Name some common street trees 
and state their good qualities. 12. Why do people plant cotton- 
woods? 13. Is it wise to leave the decision regarding the kind of 
trees in new subdivisions to the real estate man ? Why ? 

Questions on your Home City 

14. Are your parkways lined with trees ? 15. Arc they of one kind, 
or has each property owner followed his own taste in planting? 16. 
What kind of street trees do you like best and why ? 17. Has your 
city a chief forester ? 18. Are your trees planted far enough apart so 
that each may develop symmetrically ? 19. Why are people likely to 
plant trees too close together ? 



CHAPTER XVI 
PUBLIC RECREATION 

Education in Play. — American cities have spared no 
pains in providing for the people means of free education 
in the public library and in schools of great excellence. 
There are, however, many other instruments of education 
that as yet have not been seized upon in any large measure 
by our city and state governments. Our best educators 
have come to see that there is great opportunity for educa- 
tion in 1 such recreations as music, the theater, and especially 
in organized play. 

In play boys and girls learn valuable lessons in citizen- 
ship that cannot be taught so well in school. They learn 
to cooperate by each doing his part for the success of the 
team ;. they learn self-denial by sacrificing their own desires 
and glory for that of the team, as in the case where a 
batter " bunts " the ball to bring in a runner when he would 
have much preferred to bat the ball to the outfield and show 
his own skill. Then, too, boys and girls learn the dignity 
and beauty of honesty and fair play. They learn to get 
along in harmony, to settle differences, and to control their 
tempers. These qualities all help to make the best and 
most patriotic citizens. 

It is now quite common to have free public concerts in 
the parks of many of our cities, and city-owned concert 
halls with their music of high excellence would be an 
uplifting, educational force in every community. Concerts 
were given free during one winter in Boston, but as yet 

138 



PUBLIC RECREATION 



139 



they have very little place in American cities. Theaters 
and lecture halls, owned and operated by the city, are 
found in European cities ; especially in Germany, where 
they are a great influence in the education as well as the 
recreation of the people. One American city, at least, 
owns a theater — Marietta, Ohio. 

The Playground Movement. — American cities have 
taken more kindly to outdoor recreation. But it was a 




Baseball, Clarcmont Park. New York. 



most difficult task to get the playground movement started. 
Boston began to establish public playgrounds first in 1872. 
The movement has grown until the schoolyards of that 
city are generally used for play during the summer. They 
are usually equipped with sand piles, swings, and light 
apparatus. Skilled play directors are in charge. Winter 
play rooms have been secured ; they are open afternoons 



i 4 o CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

and evenings for games, reading, and sewing. This move- 
ment has progressed, until Boston has become the leading 
city in America in the experiment. 

Mr. Jacob Riis of New York City proved a great friend 
of the children. Through his untiring labors, the noto- 
rious slums of Mulberry Bend were abolished. A block of 
wretched tenements was all torn down, and in the midst 
of this crowded section was created Mulberry Bend Park, 
costing a million dollars and more, with its three acres of 
sunlight and fresh air. This achievement required years 
of effort, but Mr. Riis never gave up the fight in behalf of 
humanity. After the park was secured for the people, 
they were not at first allowed to use it. It was put to grass 
sod and inclosed with a fence. The signs " Keep off the 
grass " appeared everywhere, and the tenement children 
were not allowed to play there. Then another friend of 
child life, Mr. Charles Stover, joined with Mr. Riis in the 
fight for playgrounds, and at last an open-air gymnasium 
and playgrounds were fitted up for the children. People 
began to see that sand piles and swings, as well as lawns and 
shrubbery, are desirable for the good of the community. 
New York has now "many well-equipped city playgrounds ; 
more, perhaps, than any other city except Boston; and 
scores of American cities are following in this enterprise. 

Chicago has made great strides. There the practice 
originated of flooding the playgrounds in winter for skating 
ponds. Philadelphia, after a long struggle, secured its 
first playground about the same time as New York, and 
here was early used the public shower bath and running 
tracks, 'along with sand bins and the like. 

The chief summer sports on the playgrounds are games 
of ball, or bathing and wading where water is provided. 
The bathing beaches are open for from seventy to eighty 



PUBLIC RECREATION 



141 




Clean and Healthful Sport, Chicago. 



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Boys' Swimming Pool. Small Park, Chicago. 



142 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

days each summer in Chicago. Cities farther south have 
longer seasons. The attendance at two bathing beaches 
in Chicago in 191 1 was more than 200,000 people. Every 
precaution is taken to protect the bathers from danger, 
and there is seldom a life lost. 

The chief winter sports are skating, wrestling, and indoor 
baseball, where gymnasiums afford the space. During the 
year 191 1, the attendance at the 17 Chicago playgrounds 
was nearly 3,000,000 children and adults. It is impossible 
to number all the people who profit from the playgrounds 
of our cities. 

Public Baths. — New York State has a law requiring its 
larger cities to establish and maintain public baths, each 
provided with hot and cold water and kept open fourteen 
hours a day. Not only are public baths a source of recrea- 
tion, but they serve as a necessary protection to health. 
Many investigations have shown that a large number of 
city homes are not provided with bathtubs, and people 
often neglect bathing because of inconvenience and dis- 
comfort. 

The first all-the-year public bath which provided swim- 
ming tank and showers was built in 1889 in Milwaukee. 
The Carter Harrison bath of Chicago was built in 1893 an d 
was one of the first to provide shower baths the year 
round. The expense to Chicago for providing free baths 
to half a million bathers is between three and four cents 
apiece. New York was the first to furnish free instruction 
in swimming. The larger cities are now teaching free the 
science of swimming to tens and hundreds of thousands of 
people each year. 

City Parks. — Besides the open-air space for playgrounds 
there is a need for small parks or gardens which provide a 
resting place where older people may assemble and pass the 



PUBLIC RECREATION 



143 



time in pleasant surroundings. Such parks, with their 
trees, shrubs, and flowers, add much to the refining influence 
of a city and help to make life more enjoyable. 




A Handsome Field House. Small Park, Chicago. 

The large city parks furnish ample space for golf, base- 
ball, football, tennis, cricket, and other games. Where 




In the Larger Parks, Chicago. 

water is available, there is, besides swimming and bathing, 
the opportunity for boating, yachting, and sometimes 
fishing. Moreover, the city parks often sell ice cream, soft 



144 C ITY > STATE, AND NATION 

drinks, and lunches to the people at a more reasonable 
price than is found elsewhere. 

Parks are frequently equipped with splendid field houses 
and gymnasiums with assembly halls for neighborhood 
entertainments. There are club rooms, reading rooms, 
branch libraries, and other means of education and recrea- 
tion such as art galleries and museums. These field houses, 
museums, and gymnasiums would serve the people better 
and for a greater portion of the year if they were built in 
connection with the public schools. Eventually this will 
be done. 

The School as a Center. — The ideal playground will 
also be established in connection with schools or close to 
them, and the time will come when the school will be a true 
neighborhood center where all the activities of education, 
of recreation, and play will be under one control. In New 
York every school at the present must be provided with a 
playground. In congested districts the playground is 
sometimes located on the flat roof of the building, but in 
the outlying suburbs, spacious grounds are provided. 
When the union of school and playgrounds comes, the move- 
ment of organized play will spread rapidly to smaller cities 
and towns ; and even rural schools, it is hoped, will have 
their playgrounds in the hands of skilled play directors. 

Questions on the Text 

i. How does play help to develop character? 2. What might be 
the advantage of a public-owned theater? 3. What American cities 
took the lead in outdoor recreation ? 4. Who was Jacob Riis and for 
what is he noted ? 5. Discuss winter use of parks and playgrounds. 
6. Why are public baths necessary? 7. In what way are a number 
of small parks of more value than one big one ? 8. What is the use 
of field houses in the parks ? 9. Are those in large parks much used 
in winter ? 10. What advantage would parks have as to use if they 



PUBLIC RECREATION 145 

were made a part of the public school grounds? n. What is the 
chief purpose of a park, to be beautiful or to be useful to the people 
as recreation grounds ? 

Questions on your Home City 

12. How many parks are there in your city? 13. Are they con- 
veniently located ? 14. Can you suggest a better location ? 15. Do 
you believe in the sign " Keep off the grass" in parks ? 16. Why, or 
why not ? 17. Has your city playgrounds? 18. Are they used as 
much as if they were part of the public school grounds? 19. Some 
cities are combining park boards with school boards. What reasons 
may be given for and against this idea ? 



CHAPTER XVII 
SCHOOLS 

Reason for Free Schools. — In a country like ours, where 
the people rule themselves, there is a great need of educa- 
tion for all citizens, or the majority of voters through 
ignorance may destroy the republic. It is to protect our 
country from the consequences of the votes of ignorant or 
uneducated citizens that we have established free public 
schools. Any country that gives people a share in the 
government, must see to it that those people are raised 
above ignorance. 

Compulsory School Attendance. — It is now easy to 
understand why every state has truancy laws and why 
every child is required to go to school till he is fourteen 
years old. Some of our wisest people wish to raise the age 
limit to sixteen years, for they claim that no child should 
be permitted to stop his education at fourteen ; first, be- 
cause he is worth so little in the business world at that age, 
and second, because two extra years would mean a great 
deal to his education, making him a better and more intel- 
ligent citizen. 

When boys and girls must go to work at an early age, 
there ought to be free evening schools where they might 
continue their study. In Germany and other European 
countries, the cities have such continuation schools ; 
and here regular attendance is required as firmly as in day 
sessions. These German schools are justly famous. As a 

146 



SCHOOLS 147 

rule the free night schools of our country have accomplished 
very little, because in most cities regular attendance is not 
enforced by law. No pupil can hope to accomplish any- 
thing of importance unless he is regular and prompt at 
school. If he attends one recitation and misses the next, 
he might as well quit his classes entirely. Nevertheless, 
there is a growing movement in favor of continuation schools 
in many American cities. 

School Taxes. — There are thousands of families that 
pay no direct tax, and yet the public school freely offers, 
even forces, schooling upon their children for the future 
good of the government. It may seem unjust at first 
thought to tax the well-to-do classes heavily for purposes 
of education when they may have no children of their own 
to educate, and to use this tax collected from the rich to 
educate the children of the poor of the community. This 
is, however, the only way to provide funds for our schools, 
because the poor man can seldom pay a sufficient amount 
for the education of his children. Since the wealthy are 
profiting most under the protection of our government, 
they should be willing to pay a large part of the cost of 
supporting it. 

Many citizens object to the amount of school taxes that 
they are required to pay, and sometimes they hide as much 
of their property as possible from the assessor. This con- 
duct is most unpatriotic. It is easy to see that if every one 
acted thus, we could not have public schools at all ; and our 
beloved country would soon decline because of the ignorance 
of the mass of people. 

Equipment and Running Expenses. — The first need of 
a school is a building, well-lighted, ventilated, and heated. 
The cost of a modern building is considerable, and many 
communities have for this reason been content with ill- 



148 



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SCHOOLS 149 

suited and unsanitary school structures. The money 
necessary to construct a school building must be raised by 
taxation, but in order to prevent paying it all in one year, 
most cities sell bonds against the district to get the ready 
money for erecting the school plant. These bonds have a 
face value of one hundred or one thousand dollars printed 
on them. They bear interest and run for a term of years. 
The terms of the different bonds are usually so arranged 
that certain ones become payable each year. The interest 
must be paid annually, and when the term of the bond ex- 
pires, its face value must also be paid. In this way the 
large cost of building a school is spread over a number of 
years, and the tax is not felt so keenly as if it had to be 
paid all at one time. 

Besides the cost of the building, the running expenses, 
which include supplies, fuel, and teachers' salaries, must be 
paid. This lays another burden of tax upon the com- 
munity. The chief item in this expense is for teachers' 
salaries. Teaching is very skillful work, requiring many 
virtues and talents, and, as in other professions, the time 
and expense of preparing for it must be repaid with good 
salaries. Poor wages force competent teachers to go else- 
where or to leave the teaching work, and poorly trained 
ones will take their places. 

The Teacher. — You can readily see what kind of workers 
most men and women are by the results of their work. A 
carpenter's house is proof of his skill to do fine handwork, 
the doctor's patients recover or die, and the lawyer wins 
his case or loses it ; and equally evident are the results of 
the work of the farmer, the manufacturer, the tradesman, 
and of most businesses of our civilization. But the teacher's 
success is not so easily measured. One who is not practiced 
in judging successful teaching is likely to pronounce a poor 



150 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

school a good one. Since the teacher is working upon the 
minds and characters of her children, her work is of the 
highest type. A good teacher's work cannot be measured 
in money, while a poor teacher may be doing more harm 
than good. For this reason only superior men and women 
should be retained in the classroom. 

Some school boards think they are serving their com- 
munities well and saving the people's money by keeping 
teachers' salaries down, whereas they may be driving 
away men and women whose work is priceless and in their 
places taking poor, and even harmful workers. In this 
way children suffer in training and education through no 
fault of theirs, and this lost time can never be made up to 
them, because they are quickly pushed on to take their 
places among the world's workers. 

The Superintendent. — The best way to secure good 
teachers is to employ an expert superintendent who is a 
judge of teaching. To him should be left the choice of 
new teachers and the reemployment of the old ones. The 
superintendent should be shielded from politicians who 
may wish to secure places in the schools for their friends. 
Many a school man is greatly worried by the urging upon 
him of undeserving teachers when he is trying to protect 
the interests of the children who are intrusted to his care. 
Frequently when the town politicians cannot force in their 
unworthy friends, they elect to the school board members 
who are pledged to dismiss the superintendent. For this 
reason a man who has proven his competence and value in 
such a position should be elected for a long term of years. 
Some communities that have excellent schools, have a rule 
that no teacher living in the town shall be employed in the 
school, thus removing any reason, except merit, for a 
teacher's selection by the school official. 



SCHOOLS 151 

School Board Members. — Cities wishing first-class 
schools should elect to the school board only their best 
citizens — men who have in holding the position no selfish 
motives — friends to push, etc. ; men who consider only 
the good of the children, the future citizens of the village. 
There is no more patriotic and important office in any city 
than that of member of the school board. It means more 
to the future of the town and country than that of council- 
man ; and yet many communities fail to insist upon their 
ablest citizens Idling this office. School board members 
are not paid for their services, but high-minded business 
men are usually ready to serve their community without 

Pay- 
School Hygiene. — Lighting. — The two most important 
features of a school building are its lighting and ventilation. 
Nearly every building is well heated, but as people cannot 
immediately see the evils of poor lighting and ventilating, 
these features are too often neglected. It is impossible to 
provide an even, well-distributed light from side windows, 
because most of the light rays move straight to the floor 
near the windows, making the desks near by too glaring 
and leaving the opposite side of the room without sufficient 
light. 

Poor lighting can be greatly improved by using in the 
windows, instead of clear glass, a kind called sheet prism 
glass that scatters the light and throws part of it to the 
dark side of the room. Prism glass is more expensive, but 
there is nothing so valuable as the eyes of the children. If 
school boards cannot afford prism glass, the next best kind 
to scatter light as it passes through the windows is ribbed 
glass. This helps greatly in making the room evenly 
lighted. 

Children should never be seated so as to face a window. 



152 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 



The eye cannot adjust itself to the strong light from the 
window and the soft light reflected from the walls at the 
same time, and thus it is strained. The shades for school 
windows should be white, for though more easily soiled, 
they admit more light and distribute it in a far better way. 
The only scientific way to light a schoolroom is to follow 




The First Top-lighted School, River Forest, Illinois, 
and eyes shielded. 



Light well distributed 



nature's plan and light it from above. By building schools 
one story high and using the saw-tooth skylight so the sun 
cannot shine directly in, rooms may be perfectly lighted 
from the ceiling. This enables the teacher to keep the 
shades drawn over the side windows that glare into the 
pupils' faces with a light so strong that it causes serious eye 
strain. In the middle west many buildings are now con- 



SCHOOLS 



153 



structed with top-light, and so perfect is the result that 
the movement is spreading. The illustration shows a room 
in the first top-lighted school. 

Ventilation. — Intelligent farmers are learning the im- 
portance of ventilating their cow barns, horse stables, pig 
pens, and poultry houses, but in many places their children 
are still housed in ill-ventilated schoolrooms. To get 









5V ' 


It*. V ▲ i ■ 





Open-air School for Tubercular Victims, Chicago. 



plenty of fresh air in schoolhouses without creating a draft 
is not an easy task. It is impossible to ventilate by means 
of open windows in cold weather, without exposing some 
of the pupils to a cold draft. The fresh air should be 
heated before it is sent into the room, and the cold air 
which settles to the floor should be taken out through an air 
shaft. The most effective way to ventilate a schoolroom 
is to heat the fresh air in the basement and to force it into 



i 5 4 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

the room by means of a huge fan which is run by a steam or 
gasoline engine or by a motor. This fresh air is warmed 
and then forced in above the heads of the children. It 
then gradually cools and settles to the floor, where it passes 
out through a cold-air shaft. 

It is rather expensive to run a fan to drive the air, and 
where communities must seek a cheaper way the room may 
be heated by hot water or by steam radiators placed near 
the outside walls. Through the wall behind each radiator 
is an opening to admit fresh cold air from the outside. As 
it passes through the radiator the air is heated. This 
brings in warmed all necessary fresh air. Then by means 
of cold-air shafts or pipes with the openings near the floor 
the cold air of the room passes out and up through the 
roof. 

School Playgrounds. — Every school needs a large play- 
ground for fresh air and exercise. Educators believe that 
many important lessons may be learned by playing games. 
Children learn to respect other children's rights ; they 
learn to control their tempers ; and they learn to play fair, 
a lesson in honesty. Play is necessary for every child to 
develop muscle, brain, and character. In the country a 
school site of several acres can well be afforded, and the 
taxpayers and the school board should insist upon large 
playgrounds. In cities, however, large school grounds are 
often prohibited by the high cost of land. Now that cities 
are realizing how vital open-air spaces are to the health and 
good behavior of the people, many of them are buying park 
and playground sites at enormous prices. These should be 
located adjoining the school buildings, so that young people 
as well as adults may get the most use of them. School 
boards and park boards should plan to locate these public 
institutions together. 



SCHOOLS 



*55 



Community Use of School Buildings. — Inasmuch as 
school buildings impose a heavy tax upon the community, 
they should be used by the people in various ways. Many 
cities are opening schools for evening use — for lectures, 
political meetings, moving picture entertainments, gymnas- 
tic dancing, and the like. Advanced communities are 
building their schools with an assembly hall on the 



ittii'ftlL. 



far ~-^%^ 



Girls' "Gym" Field House, Chicago. 

main floor for the use of men's and women's clubs, and 
with a good gymnasium where the young people may ex- 
ercise and play games throughout the day and evening. 
As the school is well heated during the day. it can be made 
comfortable for evening use at slight expense. Thus the 
school plant will become more and more a social center. 
It may house the public library or a branch thereof ; it 



156 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

may afford a meeting place for clubs, socials, lectures, and 
the play features of the Y.M.C.A. The school building is 
paid for by the people of the community ; therefore, let 
the people use it in every way they can. 

Questions on the Text 

1. Why do we have free public schools ? 2. Why do we have com- 
pulsory school attendance? 3. Why should not parents be free to 
school their children or not as they please ? 4. Of what advantage 
are continuation schools ? 5. Is it right to tax everybody for school 
purposes? 6. Tell all you can about school bonds. 7. Why should 
good salaries be paid to teachers ? 8. Are they as well paid as similar 
positions in the business world? 9. Why is it difficult to judge a 
teacher's work? 10. Should parents be grateful to a teacher who 
sees to it that a child does his work ? if. Why is a good superintend- 
ent the right one to select teachers ? 12. What can you say of school 
lighting and ventilation? 13. What is meant by using schools as 
social centers ? 

Questions on your Home City 

14. Do the people of your community complain about school taxes ? 
15. Find out what your school building cost. 16. In many cities, 
schools cost #6,000 per schoolroom. How does this compare with 
yours ? 17. Is your school provided with a fan to drive the air in and 
out ? 18. Have you large playgrounds ? 19. To what extent is your 
building open to the public as a social center ? 



CHAPTER XVIII 
THE PUBLIC LIBRARY 

The Demand for Books. — Nearly everybody reads, 
to-day. We read many books where our grandparents read 
one. People who do not read books read papers and mag- 
azines. A man wants to know whether peanuts may not be 
grown profitably in a northern state ; an engineer wants a 
remedy for a cylinder that is out of order ; a boy desires 
practical directions to make an aeroplane. When they find 
that there is literature to be had on these subjects, they read 
it with great interest. But very few people can afford to 
buy all the books and periodicals they wish to read, or those 
that will give them the information they desire. The in- 
fluence of good reading material is so important that many 
communities now consider it a part of their system of educa- 
tion, and provide it free. 

History of the Library. — It was barely eighty years 
ago that the idea of a collection of books for the free use 
of a community became a reality in our country. The 
oldest library of this sort still in existence is probably at 
Peterboro, New Hampshire. It was organized in 1833. 
The Boston Public Library, one of the first to be supported 
by a public tax, is not yet sixty years old. The greatest 
growth in the extension of libraries has been since 1876, 
when the library workers organized under the name of the 
American Library Association. 

Uses of the Library. — The uses of the library are to 
provide books, to administer them wisely, and to create an 

157 



158 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

interest in them. The old-time idea of a library was to 
collect books, the modern one is to get the books used. 
Collections of pictures, lectures, story-telling, and many 
other devices are employed to attract people to the library. 
Since the American public has come to consider the library 
as part of the educational system, the city not only supplies 
the best of free reading material for its citizens, but uses 
all means to teach and encourage them to use books. This 
is now done in every community where they can afford to 
vote a library tax. 

Aside from its use as an aid to education, many regard 
the library as a place of recreation where, in comfortably 
lighted and heated quarters, they may enjoy entertaining 
books and magazines. The community looks upon the 
part the library plays in amusing people as it does upon its 
parks and playgrounds. Clean, healthful entertainment 
is good for every one and keeps them out of mischief. In 
large libraries all classes of men may be seen enjoying the 
daily papers in the reading rooms. 

The Library. — Equipment and Funds. — The library 
should be a beautiful building with attractive surroundings. 
The very best means of ventilating, heating, and light- 
ing should be employed, particularly the best means of 
lighting. Some of the handsomest library buildings in 
existence are lighted from the top, the best possible 
method. The funds for maintenance at the disposal of 
the public library are the proceeds of taxation ; receipts, 
such as fines ; interest on endowment funds ; and current 
gifts. No public activity has received larger gifts from 
individuals than has the library. The selling of bonds for 
a varying term of years is used to erect the building. This 
must be authorized by a vote of the people of the 
community. 



THE PUBLIC LIBRARY 159 

Departments. — In providing books, a well-equipped 
library will have, first of all reference books ; second, a 
circulating department ; third, special opportunities for 
children ; fourth, periodicals ; fifth, special helps for stu- 
dents. Some libraries are for reference alone. Their books 
are the more expensive sort and are not circulated. The 
modern circulating library has bookstacks open to the 
public and, when advisable, branch libraries at convenient 
stations to reach all parts of the city. Even when branch 
libraries are not needed, there are special methods of dis- 
tributing books in the public schools. 

The Trustees. — A public library owned by a city or a town 
is generally managed by a board of trustees, elected or 
appointed for that purpose. This board employs the 
librarian and the helpers, cares for the building, and ap- 
portions the funds. In smaller libraries most of the busi- 
ness end of the library administration is left to the various 
committees of the board. 

The Librarian. — The head librarian in even a small 
library must be well educated in a general sense, and should 
be especially trained for library work. A large library 
with its number of departments and complex plan of 
branches requires, in addition to scholarship, considerable 
business ability on the part of the librarian. The modern 
librarian does not believe in the library simply as a place 
to store books, but regards them as so many implements 
to be made useful. The head librarian, in order to save 
money, frequently trains his own assistants, giving them 
instructions in return for their services in book repairing, 
cataloguing, indexing, and the other details of library work. 
The chief duty of the librarian and his assistants is to teach 
people how to use the library, and to see that every one 
finds there the information he is seeking. 



160 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

Books. — The cost of a book in continual use is made up 
of the first cost of the volume and the expense of rebinding 
and mending it until it is worn out. In the selection of 
books for a public library the first consideration is the com- 
munity and its needs. The books should be of such a 
nature as to tend to improve the taste of the people who 
borrow them and yet should be within the interest of the 
readers, so that there will be a demand for them. Men 
who desire to read for information concerning their daily 
work, if they do not find this material, are apt to regard 
the library as a place of amusement for women and children. 
In smaller libraries, the librarian and a committee from the 
board choose the books, sometimes giving an opportunity 
for requests from such patrons as may be interested. 

Fines. — The penalty for keeping a book longer than 
the time allotted is commonly a fine of one or two cents a 
day. In excuse for the fine system, it is urged that a bor- 
rower who keeps a book longer than he should is depriving 
some other person of the use of it. He should make good 
to the library, in the only way he can, the injury of inter- 
fering with its usefulness. In the New York Public Library, 
of 6,000,000 circulation, about $25,000 is collected yearly 
as fines. Money so obtained is used in various ways. In 
some cities the library board takes charge of it, in others 
it is turned into the city treasury. 

Children's Libraries. — The first children's library was 
established in New York City in 1885, it being the plan of 
a primary school teacher. Now it is one of the most im- 
portant departments of the library. In twelve years the 
children's rooms had 150,000 volumes with a yearly cir- 
culation of 2,200,000. Librarians are especially trained for 
children's work, and reading rooms especially fitted for 
children. 



THE PUBLIC LIBRARY 



161 




Courtesy oj Mount Vernon Public Library. 
Children's Room, Mount Vernon (X. V.) Public Library. 



Children's Library League. — Recently the Children's 
Library League was organized in Cleveland. Before it 
was a year old it had 14,000 members. The movement 
has spread in many cities. The object of the league is to 
care for library books when in circulation. As a reminder 
of their pledge, various bookmarks have been issued. The 
first was written by a minister from Wisconsin, but there 
have been others gotten out since. 

" Once on a time a library book was overheard talking to 
a little boy who had just borrowed it, and these are some 
of the things that it said : 

' Please don't handle me with dirty hands. I should 
feel ashamed to be seen by the next little boy who borrowed 
me. 



162 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

" ' Or leave me out in the rain. Books can catch cold as 
well as children. 

" ' Or make marks on me with pen or pencil, it would 
spoil my looks. 

' Or lean on me with your elbows when you are reading 
me. It hurts. 

" ' Or open me and lay me face down on the table. You 
wouldn't like to be treated so. 

" ' Or put in between my leaves a pencil or anything 
thicker than a sheet of paper. It would strain my back. 

' When you are through reading me, if you are afraid 
of losing your place don't turn down the corners of my 
leaves, but use a bookmark and close me and lay me on my 
side to rest. 

" ' Help me to keep fresh and clean and I will help you to 
be happy.' " 

School and Library. — The course of study is laid out 
in some schools with the intent of teaching the child to use 
the library after he has finished his school days. Regular 
use of the library with good advice has made a student of 
many a man. In school, pupils must be treated in a class, 
although every child differs from his fellows. But a good 
library furnishes what best suits each one. More than one 
youth has been helped in the choice of his life work by going 
freely from one subject to another in the public library. 
Librarians find they can work more successfully in con- 
nection with the schools than in any other way. In some 
cities collections of books, selected by the teacher, are sent 
to each room in the schools, and loaned to the pupils and 
their parents. The Buffalo Library makes special reading 
lists for pupils and teachers. In several schools, systematic 
instruction is given each grade in the use of the library. 
The lower grades are taught about the make-up of a book, 



THE PUBLIC LIBRARY 



16.3 




Courtesy of Mr Claude (, 

Using a Library in the Elementary Schools. 




By permission of I he Principal, Dr. ]V. L. Feller. 



Girls' High School Library, Brooklyn. 



1 64 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

the title-page, copyright, table of contents, and index, 
and how to use them. The other grades learn facts about 
binding and the use of reference books. Still higher grades 
are taught the use of the card catalogue and other guides in 
the library. 

Questions on the Text 

i. Where did the library supported by taxes originate? 2. What 
are the uses of the library? 3. What can you say o£ the library 
building? 4. How is the library usually controlled? 5. Why do 
librarians need to be trained? 6. How do libraries attempt to co- 
operate with schools ? 7. Do you think of any advantages in having 
the library in the public school buildings ? 8. What is the average 
life of a library book ? 9. What are some of the rules for their care and 
return? 10. Why are fines necessary? n. What is the reference 
library ? 12. What are branch libraries ? 13. What are the " Carne- 
gie libraries"? 

Questions on your Home City 

14. Has your community a public library ? 15. Is it well located ? 

16. Reading rooms should have overhead lighting; has yours? 

17. How is your library ventilated ? 18. What are the objections to 
window ventilation ? 19. Has your library a children's department ? 
20. In what ways does the purpose of the library differ from that of 
the public school ? 



CHAPTER XIX 
FIRE FIGHTING 

Fire, Man's Helper. — Fire under control has long been 
man's great friend and helper. The cave man and tree 
dweller worshiped fire and prayed for its protection, be- 
cause they saw its terrible power to destroy. Until early 
man mastered fire, he lived the life of a savage with little 
chance to improve. When he learned how to start a fire 
and control it, he found many uses for it. He employed 
fire at first to protect himself from wild beasts, then to warm 
his rocky cave, and at last he learned to cook his food. In 
time fire was used to smelt ores to make tools and weapons. 
Later still the steam engine, which to-day does so much of 
the world's work, was invented. 

Danger of Uncontrolled Fire. — All fire's helpfulness to 
mankind has come about through its use under control. 
But when fire escapes bounds, it is as terrible a foe to-day 
as it was in the days of old. Then it destroyed the forests 
that sheltered the game upon which the savages relied for 
food, and it often devoured their crops and homes. When 
man began to gather in villages and to live in huts made of 
skin or wood, fire was still more destructive, and it fre- 
quently swept away the villages and killed many of the in- 
habitants. One of the means used by the American pioneers 
to conquer the Indians was to burn their cornfields and 
fire their villages. 

Control of Fire in Former Times. — For many centuries 
every family was forced to protect itself from fire, but as 

165 



166 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

the villages grew and the wooden houses were built closer 
together, entire towns and cities were often swept away in 
a few hours. Then men learned that it was not safe to let 
every family look out for itself, but that the people of a 
community must work together to fight fire. The making 
and enforcing of laws for the protection of its people is 
the purpose of government. So governments began to 
make laws for the prevention of fire. 

Under the Romans. — The ancient Romans learned to 
fight fire well, and yet the city of Rome had many dreadful 
conflagrations and was nearly destroyed by fire in Nero's time. 
The Romans had their fire companies, and besides these 
many wealthy people of that day kept night watchmen in 
their houses to guard against the dangers of fire. Rome's 
method of fighting fire in tall buildings was by using hand 
squirts. These were leather bags with long pipes attached. 
By pressing or standing on the bag full of water, a stream 
was thrown to some height through the pipe. 

In the Middle Ages. — In the Middle Ages, after the 
knowledge of the Romans was lost, the people became very 
ignorant and superstitious. They no longer made pumps 
or engines for fighting fires, as the Romans did, but they 
trusted to the charms of relics and the tolling of sacred 
bells, which they had consecrated or blessed for the purpose 
of checking the flames. We can guess how little these 
superstitions did toward putting out fires. 

English Laws and Customs. — Since it is usually at night 
that fires get a dangerous start before they are discovered, 
Alfred the Great ordered the people of Oxford, England, to 
cover their fires every night at eight o'clock. He had a 
bell rung at this hour, called the curfew, which was the 
signal to cover fires, put out the candles, and go to bed. No 
doubt many people objected to this law because they 



FIRE FIGHTING 167 

thought it interfered with their liberties, but ever since then 
we have been learning that the rights and welfare of the 
community or town as a whole must come before that of 
any one person. 

William I ordered every city and town in England to 
have a curfew bell. Any one who refused to put out his 
lights and cover his fires at the ringing of the curfew was 
severely punished. The bellman at London rang his bell 
and called out : " Take care of your tires and candles, be 
charitable to the poor, and pray for the dead.'' The cur- 
few law was afterward abolished, or done away with, but 
many towns in England still ring the curfew bell at eight 
o'clock. 

In the days of Richard the Lion-hearted, every family 
was ordered to keep a ladder or two ready to give aid to 
their neighbors, and a barrel full of water before their 
doors for quenching fires. At last the government of every 
town employed a fire officer, called the bellman, whose 
duty it was to stay awake through the night and ring a 
great bell to arouse the people and summon them to help 
put out a fire, for there was then no such thing as a fire 
department. 

All fires were fought by neighbors rushing in with their 
buckets and forming a line to pass pails of water along to 
the fire. We can imagine much of the water splashing 
out of the bucket as it passed along the line, and we can 
see many people coming to the fire without buckets. Per- 
haps they had none, or could not find them in the dark. 
So in Queen Elizabeth's time every householder was re- 
quired by law to keep in a convenient place a leather bucket 
for fighting fire. Leather buckets, ladders, and hooks 
made up the fire equipment of those days. 

Fires increased in number and ferocity as the towns 



1 68 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

and villages grew, and the citizens began looking for a 
better means of protecting their homes and families. Some 
one rigged up a big pump with a handle long enough for a 
dozen or twenty men to work at the same time. Thus the 
water from wells and cisterns could be pumped directly 
into the burning building. This pump on wheels, operated 
by a number of men who came to see the fire, was called 
the fire engine. It was an improvement over the bucket 
brigade, but it still proved useless in the presence of a big 
fire. 

Another drawback in fighting fire in those days was the 
fact that there were no regular firemen on duty that could 
be called upon at a moment's notice. Fires were fought 
by townsmen who came as volunteers, and if but few turned 
out, the fire got such headway that it was soon beyond 
checking. After the Great Fire of London, the city gov- 
ernment organized fire companies with paid firemen. 
There were at first twelve companies. Each had an en- 
gine, or pump, thirty buckets, three ladders, six pick-ax 
sledges, and two hand squirts. 

Through the carelessness of a few, many fires broke out 
and spread over large areas, burning out hundreds of people. 
No one was safe from the careless man's deeds. At last a 
law was made fining any one who was responsible for a 
fire. The fine was placed at a hundred pounds, or five 
hundred dollars, and if the offender could not pay, he was 
put in prison at hard labor for a year and a half. Do you 
think such a law would be desirable in our cities to-day ? 

The Fire Department of New Amsterdam. — Among 
the first fire officers in America were the fire wardens in 
New York, or New Amsterdam, in 1656. Leather buckets 
were soon ordered, and after a time every family was re- 
quired to have a leather bucket hung up ready for use. 



FIRE FIGHTING 



169 




Imtc Engine used in Brooklyn in 17; 



Bakers had to have three buckets, and brewers six. Every 
householder found without this bucket was fined six shillings. 
Not long after this the first fire engines, which were merely 
hand pumps, were brought over from London. 

For a long time these hand engines had to be placed very 
near the fires because they had no flexible hose, and many 
of them were burned. A leather hose was later invented 
at Amsterdam, Holland, by two Dutchmen, both named 
Jan Van der Heide. These hose could be joined to form 
long pipes. One section could be let down into a well or 
cistern to suck up the water while another section carried 
the water to the fire. 

The Steam Engine. — A steam fire engine soon followed 
the discovery of steam power. Though the fire officers 
refused at first to buy one, they changed their minds when 
they saw one actually at work, for they were much more 



170 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 




A Steam Fire Engine. 



powerful than the old hand engines and carried water long 
distances. 

Modern Fire Departments. — To-day every city and 
every village of any size has its fire department. The 
modern departments have huge fire engines that belch 
forth great quantities of water — - some as much as nine 
hundred gallons a minute. Motor fire engines and motor 
trucks are rapidly displacing fire horses in the best fire 
departments. The hook and ladder wagons carry 
scaling ladders to reach to upper story windows, but 
they are not often used, because in most large cities 
there are strict laws requiring fire escapes and fireproof 
stairs on all high buildings. The greater cities have 
water towers that aid in fighting a fire on tall buildings. 
Every hook and ladder truck carries a life net which has 
strong springs in it. This life net is used to catch people 
who must jump or perish. Under modern conditions it 



FIRE FIGHTIXG 



171 




Court* y a] Irani Urm Motor Co. 
An Automobile I look and Ladder Truck. 



<g £%£& 







Courtesy of Front Drive Motor Co. 
An Automobile Fire Engine. 



172 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 



is seldom needed. Most cities having a water front are 
provided with one or more fire boats, or tugs, which can 
usually pump ten times as much water as a fire engine. 
Chicago has six fire tugs, each of which can deliver nine 
thousand gallons of water a minute. 

Besides ordinary fire engines, all the large cities are using 




Fire Boat. 



chemical engines which carry tanks filled with a fluid, a 
small quantity of which will put out a great bulk of fire. 
These chemical engines are usually first at the fire and the 
first in action, for they carry hose already attached. Chi- 
cago has also nine hook and ladder trucks that are provided 
with chemical tanks, each of which carries from fifty to 
seventy gallons of fluid. This fluid evaporates quickly, 
leaving little drip. It does less damage than water to the 
contents of a burning building. 
The annual loss by fire in the United States is over a 



FIRE FIGHTING 173 

hundred billion dollars, and about half of this damage is 
caused by the water used to extinguish the fires. When 
only the large hose, that belched forth tons of water, was 
used, there was no way to shut off the supply quickly ; 
for the order had to be passed along to the engineer, who 
was some distance from the man who managed the hose. 
To-day in Boston the firemen push an electric button 
near the nozzle to signal the engineer. If they press the 
button twice, it means: "Turn on water." Three rings 
means "Less water"; five rings, "Stop." In some other 
cities the amount of water is now regulated by adjusting 
the nozzle. By these devices tons of water are saved, as 
well as millions of dollars' worth of property. Nearly 
every hose wagon in certain cities carries several sizes of 
hose. The small sizes are easy to handle and save much 
time in fires that are easily extinguished. 

Trained and Salaried Firemen. Large cities are start- 
ing schools for firemen, where the men in training go 
through drill just as they do at fires. A man must have 
steady nerves and a cool head to be a good fireman. He 
may have to leap from a high window into a life net. He 
must be skillful in using the scaling ladder, and be able to 
carry down a victim suffocated by smoke. 

Paid firemen give better and quicker service than volun- 
teers. It is most important that the firemen reach the 
scene quickly, because it is the first few minutes after a 
fire starts that determines how big and destructive it will 
be. Volunteer firemen who are busy with their own oc- 
cupations cannot get to a fire so promptly, nor can they 
fight it so well as those who are ready to jump on the fire 
apparatus the moment the gong sounds, and who have had 
years of experience in fire fighting. Paid fire departments 
usually include horses or motor engines as well as men, 



174 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 



and no time is lost in sending for a team, because the 
horses are trained to dash from their stalls to their places 
before the engine the instant the gong rings. The har- 
nesses fall into place on their backs and a few snaps are 
hooked, the firemen leap on the engine, the door swings 
open, and away they go on a gallop. Everything on the 




A School for Firemen. 

street makes way for them at the sound of the gong, for 
their mission is to save lives and property. Firemen are 
chosen according to their grades in the civil service ex- 
amination or according to merit shown in the training 
school. They may keep their positions for life, if they are 
expert in their work and faithful to duty. 

If any servants or officers of our cities deserve to be 
pensioned when too old to work, surely it is the firemen ; 
and most large cities are adopting pension systems. After 



FIRE FIGHTING 175 

twenty-two years of service in Chicago, the firemen are 
retired on a pension, which means half pay for the rest of 
their lives. If a fireman is killed, his widow is pensioned 
for life ; and the children who are under age also receive a 
small pension until they reach twenty-one years of age and 
are able to take care of themselves. 

Expenses. — Aside from the money for pensions and the 
salaries of the fire chief and his men, it costs a great deal to 
buy horses, engines, and other equipment for the fire de- 
partment. Where does this money come from? A part 
of the taxes that all property owners are required to pay 
each year is set aside for the upkeep of the fire department. 

The Fire Patrol. — Before the days of the chemical 
engine and the adjusting nozzle, or shut-off. the great 
amount of water pumped into burning buildings often did 
more damage than the flames. Insurance companies, 
who have to pay for most of this damage, began to or- 
ganize fire patrols which are called, in some cities, salvage 
corps. These patrols rush to all fires that break out in 
the business districts, to protect the goods. They carry 
loads of rubber blankets to spread over merchandise thai 
may otherwise be damaged by water. They also operate 
the sprinkler systems within the buildings. While they do 
some fire fighting, their chief work is to protect and to save 
goods and furniture from damage that the insurance com- 
panies would have to pay for. 

Questions on the Text 

1. In what way was fire a help to primitive man ? 2. Why was fire 
especially dangerous to ancient villages? 3. How did the Romans 
fight fire ? 4. Of what use was the curfew ? 5. Describe the first fire- 
fighting equipment. 6. Tell about the bucket brigade. 7. About 
the first fire engine. 8. In what way were paid firemen found to 
be better than volunteers? 9. Tell about the first American fire 



176 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

department. 10. What bearing on fire fighting has the invention of 
the first leather hose? n. Describe modern fire departments. 
12. What are chemical engines ? 13. What is the school for firemen ? 
14. What is the fire patrol ? 

Questions on your Home City 

15. What are the firemen paid in your city? 16. Does your city 
pension its firemen ? 17. What difficulties are encountered in fight- 
ing large fires in your city? 18. Can you suggest improvements for 
your fire department ? 19. What would you do in case of a fire ? 



CHAPTER XX 
FIRE PROTECTION 

Fire Loss in America. - It has been estimated that we 
burn up in America every week of the year on the average 
three theaters, three public halls, twelve churches, ten 
schools, two hospitals, two asylums, two colleges, six apart- 
ment houses, three department stores, two jails, twenty- 
six hotels, one hundred and forty flats and stores, and 
sixteen hundred homes. Fires in the United States are said 
to cost over $500 a minute. 

Suppose we try to picture to ourselves what these many 
millions of dollars' worth of valuable buildings in which 
fire annually rages would look like. Suppose it were pos- 
sible to bring the buildings that were visited by fire in iqi2 
all together and to range them on both sides of a long 
city street. This street would reach all the way from 
New York to Chicago. That is what the annual fire loss 
of the United States represents — a closely built-up street 
a thousand miles long with every structure in it ravaged 
by this destructive element. 

" Picture yourself driving along this terribly desolated 
street. Every thousand feet, you pass the ruins of a 
building from which an injured person was rescued. Every 
quarter of a mile there is a blackened wreck of a home in 
which some one was burned to death." Every year a new 
street a thousand miles long is consumed. The money loss 
from fires in our country in one year is astounding. The 
n 177 



178 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

annual loss in a single city like Boston is about two million 
dollars. 

Loss of Life. — The number of lives lost is still more 
appalling. In the year 1907 about fifteen hundred persons 
perished in the flames of burning buildings, while more 
than five hundred others were reported injured. Many 
deaths and injuries were not reported. Only when we 
remember that all this frightful loss of life recurs year after 
year can we understand why it is such an important part 
of city government to check the number of fires. 

Great Disasters. — Some unusually terrible fires go 
down as a part of history. The Iroquois Theater in Chi- 
cago burned in December, 1903, with a loss of nearly six 
hundred lives, mostly women and children. The Boyers- 
town, Pennsylvania, opera house burned in January, 1908, 
killing nearly two hundred persons. In March, 1908, the 
schoolhouse at Collinwood, Ohio, was swept away by flames 
and 165 pupils were burned or killed. 

Conflagrations. — The greatest fire in the history of the 
world was the burning of the city of San Francisco in April, 
1906. There have been other dreadful fires in recent times, 
notably the Boston fire, the Baltimore fire, and the burning 
of a great part of Chicago. But that at the Golden Gate 
was the most widely destructive. Four square miles of 
the heart of the city were licked up by the flames. They 
swept 490 blocks entire and partially consumed 32 others. 
Property to the amount of five hundred millions of dollars 
was destroyed, and only half of it was insured. Most 
of the great business blocks that were supposed to be fire- 
proof burned also, because they were not provided with 
means of fighting fire. Few of them had metal shutters or 
wire-glass windows or sprinkler systems such as are now 
found in most up-to-date buildings. They had no tanks 



FIRE PROTECTION 



179 




180 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

or pumps of their own. A few buildings that had these 
appliances were saved, even though they were surrounded 
by fire. 

Causes of Fire. — More than half of the fires of to-day 
are due to carelessness. The Fire Marshal of New York 
in 1906 reported that 887 fires of that year were due to 
carelessness with matches, 228 were due to children playing 
with matches or fire, 410 to lighted cigars or cigarettes, 
419 to overheated stoves or stovepipes, 252 to bonfires 
or burning brush, 386 to carelessness with candles and 
tapers, 216 to gas light in contact with curtains, 161 to 
lamps upsetting or exploding. Besides these, there were 
2064 fires whose causes were not known, but most of them 
were probably due to the same carelessness. Some cities 
are forbidding the use of sulphur matches because they are 
so dangerous in the hands of children. The safety match 
which can be lighted only by striking it on the rough part 
of the match box is generally preferred. Ten thousand 
matches are scratched every second in the United States, 
and it is estimated that 900 people lose their lives annually 
from the use of parlor matches. Gasoline is the cause of a 
large number of fires. 

Protection. — Fireproof Roofs. — Shingle roofs are some- 
times set on fire by sparks or burning embers carried by 
the wind. In the great Chicago fire many buildings nearly 
a mile away from the conflagration caught fire from burn- 
ing shingles, and thus fires broke out in many parts of the 
city at a time when the fire department already had more 
than it could handle. For this reason it would be well 
to prohibit all kinds of wooden roofing for buildings within 
city limits. A fireproof roof not only protects a building 
from distant fires and those close by, but if a fire breaks 
out inside the structure itself, the roof may hold it in check 



FIRE PROTECTION' 181 

until the firemen can put it out. When a fire once breaks 
through the roof, it burns very rapidly, because it then has 
a draft and a suction power. 

Fire Escapes. — Some fire escapes are so poorly con- 
structed that people are afraid to use them. The straight 
iron ladders fastened on the outside of buildings are so 
dangerous for people unaccustomed to them that they are 
of service only to the firemen. Sometimes the stairway 
fire escapes that are properly built are blocked up with 
barrels, boxes, and rubbish. In case a lire starts, such 
carelessness often causes serious loss of life. When the 
person seeking to escape finds his way blocked, he either 
jumps to his death or is burned because of the delay. Any 
boy or girl who discovers a fire escape that is clogged should 
report it to the police. 

Nearly half the lires in New York City occur in crowded 
tenement houses which sometimes run up six or eight stories 
high. Here is where firemen have their hardest work to 
save the lives of women and children. The laws of most 
cities to-day tend toward requiring stairway tire escapes on 
all buildings of several stories and two escapes on each 
tenement — one in front and one in the rear. Fire escapes 
not only enable many people to save themselves, but they 
aid firemen to rush in quickly and rescue others who may 
have suffocated from smoke or who have fainted. 

The number of lire escapes a building must have depends 
upon the floor space and the number of people who do busi- 
ness within. Where a tire escape passes a window, the 
window must have wired glass and metal frames and sash. 
There must be signs on every floor pointing out the fire 
escapes. 

Fireproof Stairs. — Halls and Elevator Shafts. — In build- 
ings of many stories all stairways and elevator shafts must 



182 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

be fireproof, because if otherwise they would act as chim- 
neys to create a suction or draft to help the fire along. 
But if they are fireproof and are provided with metal 
doors that close of their own accord when heat approaches 
them, the fire may be more easily confined and put out on 
the floor where it started. Most cities require their many- 
storied tenement houses to make their stairs and stair halls 
fireproof. Some cities are forbidding the narrow chimney- 
like air shafts, which accomplish little good in admitting 
air and may do much harm by aiding fires to leap through 
every floor of a crowded tenement. 

Doors and Stairways. — In many places the new fire laws 
provide that all the entrance and exit doors of public 
buildings must open out. In a fire panic the people inside 
are apt to rush together in a body toward the door. If the 
door opens in, the crowd will pile up before it in a terrible 
crush so that it cannot be opened at all, and the poor vic- 
tims will perish in a heap. Doors of public buildings, such 
as schools, churches, and theaters, should have fastenings 
easily operated from the inside. A good device is the safety 
door push. These are long handlebars which are placed 
across the door and merely pushing up on them opens the 
doors at once. In the fire at Collinwood, Ohio, children 
piled up by the score before a door that was fastened with 
a key, thus losing their lives right on the threshold of escape. 
All stairways in public buildings are now being built with 
easy rises, wide treads, and frequent landings. The fewer 
sharp turns a stairway has the safer it is. 

Protection of School Buildings. — Wooden school build- 
ings should not be allowed except in country districts, where 
they do not exceed one story in height. Schools with 
masonry and wood joist construction may be built in small 
towns where a two-story structure is large- enough. In 



FIRE PROTECTION 



183 



this case all stairways and halls should be built of fire- 
resisting materials, and the boiler room must be safely 
cut off from the rest of the building by fireproof walls. 
Most schoolroom fires originate in the heating apparatus 
or storage rooms in the basement of the building. Boiler 
rooms need have but few doors, and these should be fire- 




A Fire Drill, Washington School, Evanston, Illinois. 



proof and so constructed that heat will melt the fastenings 
that hold them open so they will close of their own accord. 
Every good-sized school to-day has its special fire gong 
and fire drill. A well-drilled school is able to vacate a build- 
ing in three minutes, or in less time. The greatest trouble 
lies in keeping the children from returning to the building 
for valuables and wraps. 

Theaters. — Since the fire in the Iroquois Theater in 
Chicago, which took about 600 lives, every theater is 
required by law to have a fire curtain which cuts the stage 



1 84 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

off from the rest of the building. These curtains are made 
of fire-resisting material to keep the flame, smoke, and gases 
from spreading into the audience room. The fire curtain 
is operated by hand, and by electricity or by water power, 
so that nothing will prevent its prompt lowering. Fire 
curtains, if genuine, will check a fire for fifteen or twenty 
minutes until the people in the auditorium have a chance 
to escape. The law also provides that all exit stairs, fire 
escapes, and balconies must be kept free from obstructions 
and from snow and ice. The stairways and halls should 
be well lighted ; and should have a rigid wall rail so they 
can be safely traversed in case there is darkness. 

Protection of " Skyscrapers." — The " skyscrapers " and 
other tall structures are now made fireproof. They are 
provided with automatic sprinklers that shower down 
floods of water if a fire starts. A certain degree of heat 
from a fire sets these sprinklers going. Buildings of several 
stories are required to have an inside standpipe, or water 
supply pipe, which passes up to the top of the building. 
On each floor is an attachment for hose. When a fire 
breaks out, the fire engine hitches to this standpipe and 
pumps water to all floors. As a rule there is also an outside 
standpipe extending up alongside the fire escape. 

The Fire Limits. — All of our large American cities have 
drawn about the crowded part of the city a line which 
is called the fire limits. Within the fire limits no frame or 
wooden buildings may be erected. It is outside these 
limits, however, where the greatest fire loss occurs. The 
firemen of Chicago desire to make the fire limits the same 
as the city limits, and thus forbid the erection of wooden 
buildings anywhere in the city. 

Fire Protection in Europe. — We have in America very 
high-class fire departments, brave firemen, and the best 



FIRE PROTECTION 185 

fire-fighting machines to be found anywhere in the world ; 
and yet our fire losses are from five to seven times larger 
than those of Europe. The same is true of the number of 
lives lost through fire. 

In Europe the people are so careful and the building 
laws so strict that most city fires are confined to the floor 
where they start. Occasionally one destroys the entire 
building, but it is very seldom that it spreads beyond the 
structure where it began. In most of the large cities of 
Europe the strict laws have forced the use of brick or stone 
for all new buildings, and very few timber or wooden 
buildings can now be found within the city limits. In 
most countries every owner of a building, or landlord, is 
held responsible for all the damage done to tenants or 
neighbors by a fire that started because of his negligence. 
On the other hand, the renter or tenant must pay all 
damages if he is to blame for the conflagration ; and so 
every one is careful to have his premises as safe as possible 
from fires. 

In Berlin the fire police regularly inspect all places where 
explosives are stored and all apparatus for heating and light- 
ing buildings. All stoves, fireplaces, furnaces. Hues, ash 
bins, and chimneys are periodically inspected by the 
police. Gas stoves must not be supplied through rubber 
tubing, and all flexible tubing must be covered with asbestos. 
Every chimney, whether in use or not, if it is connected 
with an inhabited building, must be regularly cleaned by 
one of the authorized force of chimney sweeps. In conse- 
quence, Berlin is almost free from serious fire losses, and the 
expense of fire protection and of fire insurance is greatly 
reduced. 

What to Do in Case of Fire. — If you see your school is 
on fire, go quickly and ring the fire alarm and open wide the 



186 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

doors. When you are sure your home or apartment build- 
ing is on fire, shout aloud " Fire ! Fire ! " and run down the 
stairway ; or if the stairway is full of fire and smoke, go to 
the fire escape, closing all doors behind to keep the fire and 
smoke from following. Remember that open doors and 
windows make a draft that feeds the fire. If you cannot 
escape by a stairway or by way of the fire escape, then go 
to a front room and stand up in a window so the firemen 
can see you. If you must pass through dense smoke, crawl 
on your hands and knees, for there is less heat and smoke 
near the floor. The firemen will save you with ladders, 
or they may hold out a life net and tell you to jump. You 
must not hesitate. Look up and not down, and step off, 
relaxing your muscles so your body will be limber ; and in 
an instant you are safe in the life net. If the fire occurs 
at night, it is safer not to stop to dress but to wrap a blanket 
or counterpane about you and save your life by escaping 
"quickly. Cover the mouth and nose closely if you must 
pass through smoke. Careless bystanders often lose their 
lives at big fires because they approach too closely and are 
caught by falling walls or timbers. Firemen sometimes 
perish too, but being accustomed to danger they know 
better how to guard their lives while they fight the flames. 

Questions on the Text 

i. Tell the story of the thousand-mile street. 2. Tell about some 
fearful disasters and conflagrations. 3. State the most common causes 
of fires. 4. Why are tenement fires so disastrous? 5. What re- 
quirement should be made as to the fire escapes on tenements ? 
6. What kinds of fire escapes should be prohibited ? Why? 7. Why 
should stairways and elevator shafts be made fireproof? 8. Give 
some good rules about doors and stairways in public buildings. 
9. Tell about the awful school fire in Collinwood, Ohio. 10. What 
rules should be followed as to fireproofing school buildings? 



FIRE PROTECTION 187 

II. What are fire curtains in theaters? 12. Describe the Iroquois 
disaster. 13. How are skyscrapers protected in case of fire? 14. 
What is the purpose of wired glass in windows? 15. What are fire 
limits? 16. Compare fire protection in Europe with America. 
17. Why are wooden roofs forbidden in European cities? 18. What 
should you do in case of fire in your home ? 19. In your school ? 

Questions on your Home City 

20. Discuss some large fires you have seen. 21. What was the 
origin of the fire ? 22. If your city has tenements, are they properly 
supplied with fire escapes? 23. How are your factories and large 
stores protected ? 24. How do they safeguard their employees and 
patrons? 25. Find out from your city fire chief the chief cause of 
fire in your city. Other causes. 26. Do all the doors of your 
churches, public halls, and schools open out ? 27. Why should they ? 
28. Read your city ordinances that bear on fire protection. 29. Has 
your city fire limits? 30. Some fire chiefs say that the fire limits 
should be the same as the city limits. Who would object to this? 
31. Does your school have fire drills regularly? 



CHAPTER XXI 
TAXES 

Necessity for Revenue. — We have learned of the many 
services to the people of a community, such as health, fire 
and police protection, street cleaning, the library, the public 
schools, and a score of other blessings, secured through their 
government. Besides the cost of these there are numerous 
city officers — clerks, judges, engineers, and many others 
— who .must receive a salary. All in all, the modern city 
spends a great amount of money each year. Without 
money, our governments would be helpless. One of the 
most important duties of any government is the raising of 
revenue, because a city can have only such comforts and 
conveniences as the citizens are willing to pay taxes to 
support. 

Ways of Raising Money. — There are besides taxation, 
however, a few ways in which a city may obtain an in- 
come. For certain services of the city government a fee 
is charged, and aside from this many businesses are required 
to pay an extra tax in the form of a license. Each saloon 
pays the regular taxes on the building and contents, and, 
in addition, the business is taxed for a license. There is 
usually a wheel tax demanded of all teams and wagons, 
an automobile license, and various other means of getting 
revenue to pay for improvements and services of the city 
government. But the chief income to the city is from real 
estate and personal property taxes. 

Under real estate is usually classed the bare land includ- 

188 



TAXES 189 

ing buildings and all permanent improvements. Under 
personal property come live stock, vehicles, furniture, 
stocks and bonds, cash money, and various other things. 

The Spreading and Collecting of Taxes. — The city makes 
a list of the money it will need to take care of the various 
departments of the government for the ensuing year, and 
this amount is spread upon the property found and valued 
by the assessor. Every property owner must pay the taxes 
assessed against his property, or else the city government 
may sell it to the highest bidder, take the taxes due from 
it, and return the balance to the former owner. Taxes 
not paid when due are said to be delinquent. 

Some kinds of property are exempt from taxes. For 
example, all public property, such as parks, schools, city 
halls, and other city property, are free from taxes. So, 
also, are churches and colleges and other higher institutions 
of learning. 

A Competent Assessor. — The citizens should exercise 
much care in electing an assessor who is both honest and 
a good judge of values. Men of the best judgment often 
lack the experience to value the stock of a lumber yard, a 
warehouse, a railroad, or the contents of stores. Here they 
must rely upon the owner, who is strongly tempted to 
undervalue his wares to save his purse. 

Unfairness in Tax Assessment. — In most places in the 
United States the taxes are in a badly mixed and confused 
condition. They are also unjustly levied. In the first 
place, many kinds of personal property can be easily con- 
cealed from the assessor, whereas real estate cannot. No- 
body who holds land can conceal it. Thus many wealthy 
people and rich corporations put their money into stocks, 
bonds, and notes which they can neglect to report to the 
assessor and thus avoid paying their just taxes. 



igo CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

For this reason the chief tax burdens usually fall most 
heavily upon those who own real estate. The people of 
moderate means who own their own homes and farms must 
pay more than their just proportion, while the wealthy often 
have means of escape. Nearly every one, rich or poor, 
who gives in personal property to the assessor puts a ridic- 
ulously low value upon it, if he reports it at all. This 
operates to the great disadvantage of all conscientious tax- 
payers, making their proportion much too heavy. Our 
present tax methods are so bad that very few people give 
in their property in full, because if they did, they would be 
paying more than their share of taxes. 

Sometimes the assessor is said to favor, by putting a low 
value on their property, and thus lowering their taxes, 
friends who have helped to elect him. The people or 
corporations favored in such a case would be anxious to 
keep this corrupt assessor in office as long as possible. 

The Single Tax as a Remedy. — There is, on the whole, 
so much dishonesty and injustice in our taxing methods, 
that men learned in such affairs are searching diligently 
for a better way. They want a tax that is easy to collect 
and hard to dodge and one that does not discourage people 
from improving their property. There is an increasing 
body of men in America called single taxers, who believe 
that since it is impossible to secure fair taxes on personal 
property, we should tax land values only. They argue that 
it is unwise to tax the results of men's labors, such as crops, 
buildings, furniture, tools, and the like, since this tends to 
discourage them from producing and from improving their 
land. Single taxers would encourage these improvements 
by making them exempt, or free, from all taxes. This sys- 
tem would tax vacant city lots just as much as those near 
by with buildings upon them. Then men who are holding 



TAXES 191 

their property idle so that the improvements on the lots 
next to them will raise their value, will be forced to improve 
their own in order to have an income to pay the larger 
tax. Single taxers would not tax personal property at all, 
nor anything produced by labor. Since land value may be 
multiplied a hundred or even a thousand fold by the increas- 
ing population and their industries, this increased value of 
land should be made to pay the taxes for public use. This 
increased value is made not by anything the owner of it 
does, but by the people at large, that is, the public ; there- 
fore this increased value should be taken for public uses. 

The Single Tax Tested. — Single-tax methods are in 
use to some extent in Australia, New Zealand, and western 
Canada, where the people are highly pleased with the fair- 
ness and justness of the system. Americans who have 
observed this Canadian trial of single tax wish to have it 
tried in the United States. Pittsburg is gradually reducing 
the personal property tax and the tax on improvements. 
Pueblo has adopted the single tax. In Houston, Texas, 
methods very similar to the single tax are working well. 
Other cities of that region seem anxious to adopt it. Cor- 
porations, tax dodgers, holders of vacant property, and 
many people who do not understand the system of taxing 
land values only are, naturally, opposed to it. 

Arguments for the Single Tax. — It is said that when 
taxes are levied on land only and the vacant land is taxed 
the same as the improved, many classes of people will 
be benefited. There could be no injustice and no tax 
dodging. If taxes on buildings are reduced or done away 
with, more residences will naturally be constructed, and 
renters will have to pay less for their homes. The owners 
of vacant land will be forced either to put their lots to use 
or to sell them and let some one else do so. Land will 



192 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

then be cheaper, because more owners will wish to sell. 
Manufacturers will be encouraged to buy this cheaper land 
for sites to build plants that will not be taxed. The prop- 
erty owners who already have buildings and other improve- 
ments on their property will pay a smaller proportion than 
they have done under the old system. Every real estate 
broker will benefit through the increased number of trans- 
actions in real estate. The laboring man will fare better, 
for there will be a greater demand for workers in the build- 
ing industry, and wages will increase. People owning 
shacks and slums will be forced by the increased taxes to 
put the land to better use, and the slums will give place to 
homes and factories. 

The single tax would probably not accomplish all that its 
advocates claim for it, but it would probably be far better 
than our present system, which practically forces men 
who would like to be honest in tax matters, to be dishonest 
or to pay an unfair proportion. 

Questions on the Text 

i. Name the chief city needs that require tax money. 2. In what 
other way than by taxes do cities obtain funds? 3. What is the 
difference between real estate and personal property? 4. How are 
taxes usually spread? 5. What property is exempt or free from 
taxes ? 6. What good reasons can you give for this ? 7. Upon what 
class of people do taxes fall most heavily ? 8. Why are people liable 
to undervalue their property ? 9. What qualities should an assessor 
possess? 10. What is the single tax? 11. Why should improve- 
ments such as buildings be free from taxes ? 12. Why should every- 
thing produced by men's labor be tax free? 13. Where has single 
tax been tested ? 14. Is it successful ? 15. Give some of the argu- 
ments in favor of single tax. 



TAXES 193 

Questions on your Home City 

16. Does your city tax autos, vehicles, dogs, and the like ? 17. For 
what purpose should the wheel tax be spent? 18. What properties 
in your town are free from taxes ? 19. Does your city get enough 
money from taxes to pay good salaries and build good school buildings 
fast enough to give all children the best opportunities ? 20. What 
desirable improvements could be made in your city if funds could be 
had to pay for them ? 



CHAPTER XXII 
GOVERNMENT 

Home Government. — Let us imagine a family living so 
far away from other people that they had no relation to 
the rest of the world, but were forced to provide their own 
food, clothing, and shelter. Such a family would have 
hard work to keep starvation from the door. One of the 
first things they would have to do would be to divide up 
the work so that each member might bear his part of the 
family burden. Thus they would need rules, or laws, de- 
ciding who should cook the meals, build the fires, make the 
clothing, raise the crops, bring in the food, and the like. 
Home laws are usually made by the father and the mother 
after they have carefully consulted the best interests of 
their children. 

Besides the making of the laws there would need to be 
somebody to enforce the rules, because the sons and 
daughters might not be willing to do their share of the 
work or might refuse obedience to even the most reasonable 
home laws. So the father and mother, being the older and 
wiser members, set themselves up as rulers. Or if the 
children should quarrel over their work and start to fight 
for their rights, some one would have to act as a judge to 
settle the dispute and prevent bloodshed. 

Thus we have in this lonely family a real government of 
three departments. There are rules or laws that must be 
obeyed, with some one to make them ; there are rulers to 

194 



GOVERNMENT 195 

enforce obedience to the laws ; and there are judges to settle 
disputes and make fair decisions when trouble breaks out 
in the home circle. Every family, as well as every state 
and city, must have lawmakers, rulers, and judges. 

Social Interdependence. — There are many comforts 
and luxuries of life that this lonely family could not pro- 
vide for itself. It could not have a school or library or 
church or many of the comforts that people living in com- 
munities enjoy. And the chief reason for the lack of these 
things would be the cost, which one family could not afford 
to pay. Such a family would eagerly welcome the day 
when other families settled near by, because a number of 
them by putting their means together could provide a 
school, a church, and better roads, as well as many other 
things that civilized people need and enjoy. In short, 
they could do many things jointly that no one of them 
could do alone. 

Advantages of Community Life. — We now understand 
how it is that the greater the number of people living in 
one community, the more wants they can satisfy by join- 
ing their efforts and working in common. For this reason a 
city can have more comforts than a smaller community can. 
Cities easily afford electric lights, gas, city water, good fire 
departments, well-paved streets, parks, libraries, schools, 
and all the other institutions that contribute to the comfort 
and the welfare of their citizens. 

Society's Need of Government. — The closer people live 
together, the more disputes arise among them, so there 
must be a way to make laws and settle disputes. When 
men decide to do certain things of common interest and 
pay for them in common, they form a state or city govern- 
ment. Then officers are chosen to carry out the wishes of 
the people of the community or the state. Since many 



1 96 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

minds seldom agree, questions are settled according to the 
wishes of the majority. 

The Three Departments. — Laws for the state must be 
made, and for this purpose certain citizens are chosen by a 
majority vote, who form a body called a council, a legislature, 
or a congress. There are always some citizens in every 
state or community who are unwilling to obey the laws, so an 
executive is needed to see that obedience is enforced. Such 
an officer may be called a king, a president, a governor, or 
a mayor. Honest men frequently have disputes, or they 
may disagree as to what the law means. So the state must 
have judges whose business it is to explain the law and to 
decide disputed cases. And so we have again the three 
departments of government — legislative or lawmaking, 
executive or law enforcing, and the judiciary, which ex- 
plains laws and acts as judge in case of disputes. 

Complexity of City Government. — While city people 
have more conveniences, they are more likely to come into 
conflict with one another when so many live in so small 
an area. They constantly get in one another's way and 
interfere with one another's plans and business. There- 
fore the city community must have more laws, more offi- 
cers, and a more complex government in every way. The 
closer people live together, the more careful they must be 
to consider their neighbor's rights. A man living a lonely 
life can be as selfish as he chooses, but when he comes to 
live among other people, he must give up his selfish habits 
and consider what is wise for the community as a whole. 
A man living on a farm may throw his garbage into the 
street or live amidst filth that causes disease, and perhaps 
no one is affected except himself and his business ; but such 
things will not be tolerated in a city, where his carelessness 
would affect the welfare of his neighbors. 



GOVERNMENT 197 

Questions on the Text 

1. Why are laws necessary? 2. Why are judges needed? 3. 
Name the three departments of government and tell what is the 
work of each. 4. What are some of the advantages of city life? 
5. Why must city governments be so complex ? 

Questions on your Home City 

6. Can you suggest three departments of government in your 
city ? 7. Name your chief city officials. 8. What advantages have 
you over a man living on a farm ? 9. Mention several cases of dis- 
pute occurring in your city that could not occur between farmers. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
CITY GOVERNMENT 

Difficulties of City Government. — The duty of enforc- 
ing law and keeping order in a city is a very difficult task, 
especially in a large metropolis. Here are found thousands 
of foreigners who do not speak our language and are igno- 
rant of our laws. There are also many citizens who thrive 
by dishonest and unlawful trades and practices. Worst 
of all, in the thronging streets there are all sorts of criminals 
looking for a chance to steal money and valuables or to 
take advantage of unprotected people. 

Why Cities are so badly Governed. — One reason why 
so many cities have been badly governed is that it is not 
always an easy matter to elect a good mayor and council. 
The saloons, gambling dens, and other resorts that do not 
like to obey the laws, wish an easygoing mayor who will 
let them do as they please. They are willing to work hard 
and contribute liberally to elect their candidate. Then 
there are often unfit men who want an easy city " job " ; 
so they hustle to get the votes for the careless mayor with 
the promise, or at least the hope, that if he is elected they 
will be rewarded. Sometimes the public service corpora- 
tions, such as the street car companies, the gas and electric 
light corporations, have been interested because they wanted 
a new franchise. They naturally desired to elect the easy- 
going candidate, for he might not insist on driving a hard 
bargain with them in favor of the citizens of his community. 

198 



CITY GOVERNMENT 199 

These companies are sometimes ready to join with the other 
people who have selfish purposes and to devote time and 
money to the election of such a man. 

On the other hand, the honest citizens and business men 
who have no private interests to push, often forget to vote ; 
or they fail to unite on a worthy candidate who will care 
for the interests of the city as a whole. This unpatriotic 
and lazy attitude is rewarded by years of corrupt city 
government, for the evil forces easily carry the day by 
uniting their strength. Then vice and wickedness go 
unpunished, and gamblers and criminals flourish, placing 
danger and temptation in the way of every family in 
the city. This evil might be prevented if the stay-at- 
homes would take the proper interest, join in supporting 
a good candidate, and work hard to get out honest 
voters. 

Since the evil elements unite to elect their candidate no 
matter to what party he belongs, our wisest citizens are 
coming to see the wisdom of doing away entirely with party 
candidates in city elections. This would bring about the 
union of all sincere voters regardless of the party to which 
they belong ; and since we believe that our honest citizens 
outnumber the bad or careless ones, there is no doubt 
that they could elect good men to office. Nonpartisan 
elections will be a long step toward decent and clean city 
government. 

The Mayor. — Some of the best-governed cities of the 
world are those of Germany. They do not choose a citizen 
who is totally inexperienced as their mayor, but they look 
about over the other cities of the empire, and when they 
have found an exceptionally strong mayor in some other 
city, they take him for their city by offering him a higher 
salary or some other inducement. Then they keep him for 



200 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

a long term of years, perhaps for life, giving him a pension 
when he is too old to serve them. This is the way business 
men choose their superintendents, and the way school 
boards elect their heads of schools ; and it is undoubtedly 
the best way to secure a good, competent, and clean exec- 
utive. 

The mayor is elected for the serious duty of keeping peace 
and order and protecting people's rights and property. 
He is the chief officer of the city government. He not only 
enforces law and preserves order, but in most American 
cities the mayor has a share in lawmaking. Every bill 
or ordinance passed by the city council must be sent to the 
mayor to be signed before it becomes a law. In most 
cities, if the mayor vetoes the bill, — that is, refuses to sign 
it, — it may again be brought before the council ; but this 
time it must have a much larger majority in order to be- 
come a law without the mayor's signature. As a rule, the 
mayor's veto kills a bill, because it is hard to secure 
the necessary large majority in its favor on the second 
vote. 

The Police Force. — In thinly settled country districts, 
it is difficult for a thief or other criminal to conceal himself, 
but in the crowded city escape is much easier ; and there 
are all kinds of valuables that can be carried away and 
quickly disposed of. Men with a bad record take refuge 
in the city, which has certain districts that are hotbeds of 
lawlessness. There are criminals among the rich as well 
as the poor. There are some with bright minds as well as 
stupid. 

Society must be protected from the criminal, and long ago 
city governments organized a force of men called police 
whose duty it is to protect property and life, to prevent 
crime, and preserve order in the city limits. They are 



CITY GOVERNMENT 201 

in reality the city soldiers, and the mayor is their com- 
mander. The police force is divided into classes of different 
rank, ranging from the patrolman to the superintendent, 
commissioner, or chief of police, who makes the rules gov- 
erning the force. The city is divided into police districts 
or precincts, each of which is subdivided into " beats " 
and " tours " of duty that are to be patrolled day and 
night. Each precinct has a body of police, at the head 
of which is a captain who is responsible for carrying out 
the orders of the chief by issuing instructions to those 
under his command. For long " beats " or difficult work 
there are mounted police. In New York there are bicycle 
squads, and now the motor cycle has come into use to 
catch auto speeders. 

In European countries the police are largely paid by the 
state, and are under its control ; but in America they are 
paid entirely by the city government and are subject to 
the mayor's orders. 

An important branch of the police service is the de- 
tective bureau, which consists of a force of men em- 
ployed because of their shrewdness and ability to detect 
crime as well as for their knowledge of noted criminals. 
These officials are often called " plain clothes men " be- 
cause they wear no uniform but a badge. 

The Policeman and his Duties. — A good patrolman 
must have a firm but pleasant nature and polite address. 
He must have perfect control of his temper and never 
allow himself to be moved from his duty by pleading or 
threats. He is often called upon to settle disputes and to 
act as adviser. He warns those who seem about to take 
a wrong course, for it is the first object of the police to 
prevent crime rather than to punish it. A policeman 
should do his duty promptly and quietly, being careful not 



202 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

to undertake a serious trouble without a sufficient force 
to aid him. 

A patrolman is empowered to arrest persons charged with 
offenses or suspected of them ; he may enter a house in 
pursuit of an offender or to search for stolen goods; he 
may interfere in a quarrel. By active and intelligent watch- 
fulness, he checks and prevents the commission of many 
lawless deeds. The policeman is exposed to danger in his 
duty of protecting the public, where he bravely risks his 
life, sometimes facing brutal and murderous violence. The 
policeman who bravely does his duty deserves as much 
honor as any other courageous soldier. 

The policemen regulate street traffic and control the 
passing at busy street crossings. This is one of their 
hardest duties. They take charge of and collect lost 
property. Thousands of articles are dropped, forgotten, 
or mislaid every year in large cities, and through the police 
department many are returned to their owners. Sometimes 
live stock are lost and later found in the hands of the police. 
These include rabbits, dogs, and cats, and even parrots and 
canaries. Then there are books, bicycles, weapons, mail- 
carts, golf clubs, musical instruments, to say nothing of 
sewing machines, found and cared for by the police. 

Lost children are generally restored to their parents 
through the police station. It is a touching sight to see 
a lost child walking trustfully hand in hand with a giant 
policeman to some place of safety. Policemen often save 
human lives by stopping runaway teams. The story is 
told of a man in blue who saw a horse running away down 
a busy street. He was hitched to a buggy in which sat an 
old lady. The policeman jumped on behind a motor cyclist 
who happened to be passing, and, pointing to the galloping 
horse, told the motor cyclist to " speed up." When they 



CITY GOVERNMENT 203 

ran alongside the horse, the policeman grabbed the rein 
and stopped the animal, and the woman was saved. There 
are hundreds of just as brave rescues in a large city every 
year, and many times the policeman is injured in perform- 
ing his duty. In London in one year, over two thousand 
policemen were injured while making arrests, and nearly 
a hundred more were hurt in stopping runaway teams. 

Corruption in the Police Force. — In some of the large 
American cities, members of the police force have been 
found to be corrupt. They have been known to protect, 
for the payment of " hush money," saloons and gambling 
houses and other disreputable places that break the law. 
Where such has been the case, the policemen are said to 
divide this ill-gotten money. If the people engaged in law- 
breaking refuse to pay them the large price they ask to keep 
silence, it is claimed that they drag these people into court, 
where they are heavily fined and forced to give up their 
lawless business. Though there may be some dishonest 
men in every police department, as there are in all kinds 
of work, in the main our policemen are brave, faithful, and 
loyal guardians of the city. 

Questions on the Text 

1. What other duties has a citizen besides voting? 2. What is a 
nonpartisan election? 3. Why should party names be kept off 
ballots for city elections ? 4. How do the cities of Germany choose 
a mayor? 5. What are some of the mayor's duties ? 6. What may 
he do with his power of veto ? 7. In what way is their system better 
than ours ? 8. Why are there more criminals in the city than in the 
country, when the population in each is equally large ? 9. Discuss 
the duties of the police. 10. What is a detective bureau ? n. What 
dangers does the patrolman meet ? 



204 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

Questions on your Home City 

12. Is your chief executive called mayor? 13. Does your mayor 
have the veto power? 14. For how long is he elected? 15. Does 
experience make a better mayor ? 16. If so, is it well for your city to 
keep changing? 17. Can you give any stories of danger that police- 
men have faced? 18. What are the most desirable qualities in a 
policeman ? 



CHAPTER XXIV 
NEW FORMS OF CITY GOVERNMENT 

Corruption in City Government. — There has been great 
waste of taxes by city governments in all parts of the 
country. Most of this waste has come through poor 
business management. The city government is a great 
business organization working for the people as a whole, 
doing service for the entire city, and spending the people's 
money for the common good. There are two reasons why 
the work has not been done as it should. One is because 
the men elected have not been trained for it and the other 
is because it has been in the hands of politicians whose busi- 
ness is to secure an easy job from the people. Because the 
men who have been placed in these responsible positions 
have not had their deeds examined by superior officers or 
scrutinized carefully by the people who elected them, it 
has been difficult to ascertain winch officers have served 
their community faithfully and which have wasted the 
public money without return. Our governmental machin- 
ery is so complex, with its checks and balances and its 
divided responsibility, that it is difficult to fix the blame 
on any one officer. It is possible for one to shift the care- 
lessness on the other, and meantime the public suffers and 
the taxpayers see their money misused or wasted. 

Nor does this condition of affairs arise entirely from 
ignorance on the part of the officeholders. Some of them 
have been elected to their positions because of their friend- 
ship for political " bosses " or interested corporations ; 

205 



206 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

and when they are in office they deliberately play into the 
hands of those who elected them, turning over to them 
valuable franchises or contracts for city improvement 
wherein there is a chance to get more than is earned. 

A New Form of City Government. — In many cases the 
influence of the " boss " system has been pernicious, as 
has also been that of corporations that were seeking some 
private interest at the expense of the public and the tax- 
payers. The best citizens have therefore been searching 
for a better method of electing desirable men to office and 
a better organization of city government. Some few years 
ago Galveston and other Texas cities tried a new form of 
government called the Commission Form. Des Moines 
and other northern cities have since tried the plan. 

Instead of the usual way of electing a multitude of offi- 
cers, few of whom are personally known to the voters and 
many of whom are unfit for public service, the new system 
chooses a commission consisting of a small number of well- 
known men, usually five, in whose hands are placed the 
entire power and responsibility of managing the city 
government. The voters have time to investigate the 
record of these candidates and can cast their ballots intelli- 
gently and without asking the advice of selfish politicians. 
In this manner, better and abler men than those chosen 
under the old system are induced to serve the city. Re- 
sponsibility is placed entirely in the hands of the men 
elected, and blame is easily fixed when things go wrong. 

The city commissioners are generally chosen for longer 
terms than the officers under the old plan, and they are 
better paid. In some cities they may be recalled, that is, 
they may be dismissed by a vote of the people at any time 
if they have proved incompetent or corrupt. An election 
must be held in order to recall an officer. 



NEW FORMS OF CITY GOVERNMENT 207 

The commission, acting like the directors of a business 
corporation, fill the various city offices by appointing men 
who are competent or trained in the work to be done. 
These appointed experts hold their places usually under 
civil service rule, and for as long a time as they do their work 
satisfactorily. The commission, however, is held respon- 
sible by the public for the kind of men they place in office. 

Weak Points of the Commission Government. — Al- 
though the commission plan has proved a method of doing 
away with corruption in the city council and among other 
elected officers, it has its weak points. The men who com- 
pose the commission have great power ; and if dishonest 
persons are chosen, so much the worse for the city. The 
advantage is that they are more easily convicted of wrong- 
doing and can be put out of office. On the whole, the fewer 
and more competent city officers chosen by the commis- 
sion plan have proved far more efficient, honest, and eco- 
nomical. 

Each commissioner is the head of some city department, 
such as that of finances or street paving. It is a tempta- 
tion for one to say to the other : "If you will let me have 
my way in my department, I will let you manage yours as 
you think best.' 1 This would be very well if each man were 
chosen especially for his fitness in this department, but 
the people often fail to choose experts. Experts, indeed, 
often fail of election because they are not " vote getters." 
If the people do not elect a commission of experts, an un- 
skilled man may be assigned to the street paving depart- 
ment, or an engineer to the finances. While the com- 
missioners may all be able men, they may not fit into the 
several places. Thus, by each assuming full control of his 
department, the very end of the commission plan, which is 
the united judgment of several able men on important 



208 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

questions, may be defeated. What is needed in each 
department is a trained expert. 

Its Growing Popularity. — The commission form of gov- 
ernment has spread with surprising rapidity, and three 
hundred cities in various states have adopted it; among 
them : Sacramento, Los Angeles, St. Paul, and even New 
Orleans, with its 350,000 population. It is popular in 
scores of smaller cities throughout the United States. 
Where it has been tried it is found to give the cities better 
officers, and it has often greatly reduced the taxes through 
economy and good business management. In Trenton, 
N.J., the commission saved $100,000 to the taxpayers the 
first year it was in operation. 

The City Business Manager. — Another form of city 
government is being tried in a few places with success. 
The people elect a small commission, or council of business 
men, who merely act as a board of directors. They do not 
give their entire time to the city affairs as do city commis- 
sioners, nor do they receive a salary of any consequence. 
They are in the same relation to the city as a board of 
directors is to a bank. This council of commissioners choose 
an expert business manager for the city, paying him a good 
salary. They give him full power to select his helpers 
and hold him responsible for a good, clean, economical 
administration of the city's affairs. The commission serve 
in the same capacity as does a school board, and the busi- 
ness manager serves the city as the superintendent of 
schools does in educational matters, appointing his expert 
helpers for the various departments. 

It is less expensive to have one salaried official instead of 
five as in the commission plan. One head instead of 
several makes speedy action on matters possible. The 
business manager may be drawn as an expert official of 



NEW FORMS OF CITY GOVERNMENT 209 

experience from another city, as the mayors are chosen in 
German cities ; and he may be a permanent, trained, pro- 
fessional expert in all city matters. It is believed that the 
business-manager plan will spread rapidly, especially in 
the smaller cities. 

Dayton's Stand. — The flood-swept city of Dayton. 
Ohio, has adopted the commissioner-manager plan of 
city administration. Dayton has a population of 125,000. 
After the flood in 19 13, a government was needed that was 
speedy in action. Five commissioners were elected as a 
legislative body. They are to act as directors for the city 
and they may be recalled or dismissed at any time by a 
vote of the people. The commissioners have hired an expert 
manager to carry on the business of the city. To illustrate 
their care in choosing this important officer, it is said that they 
offered it to George W. Goethals, the master builder of the 
Panama Canal. When he declined the honor they searched 
very carefully for some one else who was exactly suited to 
the place. At last they settled upon Henry M. Waite of 
Cincinnati, a man of wide experience. He is the single 
head of Dayton and may appoint, discharge, and fix the 
salaries of his subordinates, who form a cabinet working 
under his direction. In this way he is responsible for any- 
thing that may go wrong with municipal affairs, and if 
necessary, he may be dismissed by the commission. Thus 
Dayton, for a large city, has a government carried on in 
a novel way. How well it succeeds depends upon the 
interest of the citizens of that community who are willing 
to do their duty as citizens, giving time and energy in 
support of the commission and in behalf of good govern- 
ment. No plan of government will run itself. The re- 
sponsibility must fall back on the citizens. 



210 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

Questions 

i. Why have American cities been so badly governed? 2. Name 
two ways in which the people's money has been wasted. 3. Why is 
it difficult to fix the blame of mismanagement ? 4. What is a political 
machine? 5. Why do not the patriotic citizens organize a good 
machine? 6. What is the commission form of government ? 7. How 
does it divide the duties of ruling ? 8. What is the recall and what 
merits has it ? 9 Is the commission form of city government popu- 
lar? 10. What are its weak points? n. What is meant by a city 
business manager? 12. What can be said in favor of the business- 
manager plan? 13. Tell what you can of Dayton's new govern- 
ment. 



PART II. THE STATE 

CHAPTER XXV 
HEREDITARY TYPES OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT 

Colonial Government. — The men who built up our gov- 
ernments in America were English colonists who brought 
with them the customs and practices, offices, and forms of 
their homes in England. These they adapted or changed 
to suit their new surroundings in the wilderness. Because 
the conditions in New England differed widely from those 
of the Southern colonics, there grew up different types of 
colonial government. 

The Township Government. — In Xew England the 
settlers found themselves in a land that was hilly with a 
stony soil. Streams were numerous, but generally small, 
rapid, and unsuited to navigation. There were many 
bays and harbors along the coast that invited seagoing 
occupations, while the forest yielded excellent timber for 
shipbuilding. These conditions prevented the colonists 
from spreading widely and thinly over the country. More- 
over, these New England settlers were Puritans who de- 
sired to foster the religious life for which they had made 
great sacrifices; and they naturally grouped themselves 
into little church communities, living close together so that 
every one could take an active part in worship and the 
management, or government, of the church. 

The New England colonists, therefore, put into practice 



212 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

those features of township government in England that 
were best suited to the villages or towns in America. They 
built their tiny settlements along the shore of the sea and 
the banks of rivers, often inclosing them with stockades 
for protection against the warlike Indians. Each settle- 
ment was obliged to take care of itself, because it was sepa- 
rated by unbroken and almost pathless forests from the 
others. Each had a common pasture where the stock of 
all were turned to graze together, and officers were chosen 
to look after this common grazing land. As all were equal 
and active in church affairs, so were they likewise in the 
government of each tiny community. 

Once a year, or oftener, the voters assembled in town 
meeting to discuss town affairs and to elect officers for the 
ensuing year. Here they levied taxes for the support of 
the community, provided for the upkeep of the roads, for 
the care of the poor, and the support of the church and 
schools. 

The important part of this town government was the 
freedom with which all matters of public concern were dis- 
cussed in the town meeting and the interest each citizen 
took in the affairs of the government. The town meeting 
was the means of educating every one in political affairs. 
The towns and townships were later grouped into counties, 
but there were very few county officers. Nearly all local 
questions were left to be managed by the people in their 
town meetings. 

The County Government. — The men who settled Virginia 
and the Carolinas were not Puritans, nor did they come in 
families or groups of families from the same neighborhoods 
in England. Many were adventurers, often from the upper 
classes. In religion they were Episcopalians. They settled 
in a region where the Indian tribes were comparatively 



HEREDITARY TYPES OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT 213 

peaceable, and there was little need for the people to settle 
near together for the purpose of defense. Since the climate 
was too hot for European labor, slaves were imported to 
cultivate the land. The rivers were numerous and navi- 
gable, and ships from England sailed up them to the land- 
ing of each planter. The soil was fertile, and the planta- 
tion owners soon became wealthy. Every plantation was 
the center of a group of free whites and an increasing num- 
ber of slaves, all subject to the rich planters, whose houses 
lay miles apart from one another. The estates were 
large, and the people scattered thinly. There were no 
towns or villages as in New England, because there was 
no need for them. 

The Southern colonists, in order to form local govern- 
ments, had to include a wide territory, and so they copied 
the county governments in England. The counties were 
divided into parishes, which came to be sections just large 
enough to support a church. All important offices were 
those of the county, whose affairs were usually managed 
by a board of county commissioners. The county court 
administered justice, made laws regulating highways, and 
levied taxes for county purposes. The other chief officer 
was the county sheriff, who kept the peace and was also 
treasurer. 

Differences in the Types. — Thus, we see, the mass of 
voters in the Southern colonies had little to say about their 
government, for they did not gather to take part in discus- 
sions as was the case in the New England town meeting. 
While the township form of government developed in New 
England, in the Southern colonies the county type prevailed. 
In the North the townships elected members to the colonial 
assembly, while in the South these were chosen by counties. 
The township form gave every one a practical education in 



214 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

political affairs, while the county form developed strong 
leaders. 

The Compromise Type. — The middle colonies had both 
the township and the county, and the powers of local gov- 
ernment were more equally divided between them. In 
time this has become true of New England and the South, 
each copying somewhat from the other. 

Types in the West. — As the Western states were settled, 
we find the people using the form of government that they 
were accustomed to in the East. The states of the central 
West received settlers both from New England and the 
South, and we find the power rather evenly divided between 
the township and the county. In the more Northern states, 
such as Michigan and Wisconsin, the township is more 
prominent ; while in Ohio, Indiana, Kansas, and others 
bordering on the Southern states, the county government 

is strong. 

Questions 

i. How did the different forms of local government in America 
come about ? 2. Describe the kind that developed in New England. 
3. How was it suited to their needs ? 4. Discuss town or township 
government as a means of political education. 5. How did condi- 
tions in early Virginia differ from those in New England ? 6. Discuss 
this Southern type of local government. 7. What are the chief differ- 
ences between these two types ? 8. What is the compromise type ? 
9. Where found ? 



CHAPTER XXVI 
COUNTY GOVERNMENT 

The County. — For convenience to the people in ruling 
themselves a state is divided into smaller units called 
counties, each of which is made up of about a dozen or more 
townships. Many questions are settled by the people 
themselves in their town or count)- government. Among 
these are the questions of taxes, the building of roads and 
bridges, the schools, the arrest and care of criminals, and 
the care of the poor. 

The County Seat. -— The county seat is the village or 
city where the county officers meet to transact the business 
for the county. Here the courthouse, the jail, and the 
other county buildings are located, and here the county 
courts hold their sessions. Certain county officers reside 
at the county seat during their terms of office. The 
people of a county choose by vote which city shall be their 
county seat; and it cannot be changed to a different city 
except by another vote of the people. 

County Officers and Administration. — County officers 
are usually elected by the people for various terms. The 
legislative power of the county is in the hands of a county 
board called commissioners, or supervisors. In the South- 
ern group of states the commissioners are few in number, 
and each is elected by the entire county ; while in the 
Northern group they are called supervisors and are chosen 
by towns, villages, or the wards of the city. The county 
board makes certain laws or rules for the county, and decides 

215 



216 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

upon the amount of money to be raised each year by taxa- 
tion to maintain the county government and to contribute 
its share to the state. They also divide the county into 
school and road districts, look after the poor, erect public 
buildings, such as the courthouse and jail, construct 
bridges, and lay out public highways. 

County Affairs and Administration. — The court affairs of 
the county are in the hands of a county judge, and with him 
is chosen a sheriff and a clerk of the courts. The sheriff 
keeps the peace by attending court and carrying out its 
orders. He has charge of the county jail, delivers prisoners 
to state institutions, sells property for the nonpayment of 
taxes, and turns the receipts over to the proper authorities. 
In some counties he is very well paid. The sheriff's fees 
in New York counties have been known in some places to 
run as high as $75,000 a year. 

In addition to these officers, there is a recorder of deeds 
who keeps certain records, especially a record of deeds and 
mortgages on property. These are necessary to show who 
is the rightful owner of a farm or home. There is a coroner 
who inquires into the cause of deaths, where violence or 
accident seems to have been the cause. The surveyor is 
the county map maker, keeping the records of the bound- 
aries of farms and lots. Then there is a treasurer to keep 
the county funds paid in as taxes, and to pay them out when 
properly instructed. Every county has a lawyer, usually 
known as the county attorney, to look after the law matters 
of the county. 

The Long-ballot System. — So many county officers 
are chosen by election that the voter cannot become in- 
formed about every candidate and vote as intelligently as 
he should. Certain districts of New York City have had 
tremendously long ballots, one 14 feet long and another 18 



COUNTY GOVERNMENT 217 

feet long, covered with the names of candidates in fine 
print. Under this system party leaders and bosses get in 
their work and unfit men are elected to office. The long 
ballot is an enemy of good government. 

The Short-ballot Reform. — The best remedy for this 
is to introduce the short-ballot reform, which recommends 
the election by the people of only the most important 
county officers, the supervisors or commissioners. All 
the other county officials, instead of being elected by the 
people, are then appointed mainly by the commissioners. 
There is no good reason why the county clerk, the recorder, 
or the surveyor should not be appointed by the county 
board of supervisors. These officials merely perform the 
duties of their offices as stated by law. The sheriff could 
be better chosen by the court, whose orders he carries out. 
Since the county prosecuting attorney represents the 
state, he might well be appointed by the attorney-general 
of the state. 

These appointed officers could be given longer terms, 
perhaps for life or during good behavior, and by doing away 
with such frequent changes the county would undoubtedly 
have better-trained servants and more satisfactory service. 
Then, too, the voters could easily investigate the record of 
a small number of candidates for the elective offices and 
make sure efficient men were chosen. 

The first county in America to adopt the short-ballot 
system was Los Angeles County. Hitherto there had been 
thirteen different county officers to be elected annually, 
enough to cause the voters to ballot blindly. Under the 
new system, when it is in full operation, there will be only 
three candidates to be chosen for office yearly. 



218 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

Questions 

i. What is a county? 2. Why is it necessary? 3. What is the 
county seat ? 4. How is it chosen ? 5. Name the chief officers of the 
county. 6. Who makes certain laws for the county? 7. What are 
the sheriff's duties ? 8. Name duties of other county officers ? 
9. What is meant by the long ballot ? 10. What objection is there to 
it ? 11. What is meant by the short ballot ? Illustrate by Los 
Angeles County. 



CHAPTER XXYII 

STATE AND COUNTY PRISONS 

Social Protection. — Society must be protected from the 
lawbreaker and criminal, or the government would soon 
go to pieces and we should have anarchy. Anarchy is a 
condition of society where each family or individual would 
have to fight to protect himself and his interests. Law- 
breakers and criminals must be captured and taken care of ; 
this is a part of the duty of the executive, or law-enforcing 
department of the state and county. The governor looks 
after state criminals and the sheriff takes charge of county 
lawbreakers. 

The County Jails. — The people of each county, we have 
seen, elect a sheriff for a term of years and provide him with 
a home near the county jail. He is keeper of the jail, and 
sees that the prisoners who are awaiting trial are fed and 
cared for. When one has been convicted of a serious crime 
by the court, the sheriff takes him to the state prison, or the 
penitentiary. 

In the county jails are found all sorts of men and even 
women. Some are young, having committed their first 
offense, and should be dealt with leniently ; others are 
hardened criminals who have been many times in prison. 
In most states the keepers of county jails and city lockups 
have heretofore paid little attention to the welfare of their 
prisoners. The young and accidental lawbreaker was 
forced to associate with the hardened criminal, by whom 

219 



220 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

he was taught all sorts of crime, and began to look forward 
to a life of evil and disrespect for law. In many instances, 
if he had been protected from these dangerous companions, 
his first punishment might have made of him an honorable 
man. 

The larger number of county jails are badly planned and 
are often unhealthful. Some are dark and cold in winter 
and poorly ventilated in summer. Prisoners frequently 
contract disease while confined in them. The quarters 
for the men are small and cramped, and sometimes two 
prisoners are crowded into one cell. Some jails have no 
separate quarters for the women prisoners. Such jails 
and prisons as we have just described have been schools 
of wickedness and crime, and have perhaps done more ill 
than good to society. 

The sheriff has very seldom had experience in dealing 
with prisoners prior to his election, so he knows very little 
about the best way of managing them. He chooses his 
own deputy, or assistant, who may be no better qualified 
than himself for the office. County jails are much of the 
time empty, and at no time is the number of prisoners 
large. To keep a salaried official and provide him with a 
residence and a jail, which are naturally expensive build- 
ings, is not a very economical way to care for a few prisoners, 
especially when they are poorly provided for. 

The Remedy. — Men and women who have studied this 
question deeply believe that it would be far better in many 
ways to let the state officers take charge of all county pris- 
oners, since it is state laws the prisoners have broken. If 
they were turned over to the state, one well-located prison 
might serve a dozen counties. In such a case a prison 
keeper, or warden, who had studied prison problems and 
received some training in the care of prisoners, could be 



STATE AND COUNTY PRISONS 221 

secured ; and work could be provided for the prisoners 
as it cannot be now. 

The Old State Prison. — The state penitentiaries were 
formerly no more satisfactory than the county jails. The 
criminals, young and old, were kept together in idleness. 
They were often harshly treated and beaten for disobe- 
dience. They were dressed in stripes and no attempt was 
made to reform and make law-abiding citizens of them. 
They were leased out as laborers to contractors, who paid 
the state so much for their work ; and these contractors 
or their overseers often abused the broken men in order to 
get as much work out of them as possible. 

Prison Reform. — In recent years a large number of 
thoughtful men and women have made a careful study of 
prisons and have come to believe in certain definite reforms 
or changes in the methods of caring for prisoners. Their 
plans have already been tried with success in Europe, and 
a number of American states are adopting them. 

The first and chief object of imprisonment is to protect 
the public. This has always been the main object of 
prisons ; but the new idea now growing is that it is just 
as important to try to reform and save the lawbreaker 
to a future life of honor and service to society. So most 
of the new plans now being tried are along the line of 
helping these erring men in a Christian spirit. A special 
effort is being made to get hold of the young criminal in 
the very beginning of his downward career, and to keep 
alive in him the spark of self-respect that will help him 
to save himself rather than to push him along by destroy- 
ing his sense of manhood. The idea is growing that crime 
is not only to be punished, but cured. 

In cases where young men and first offenders — who 
because of ill temper or drink have committed a crime — 



222 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

are confined, they are being kept apart from the hardened 
criminals to prevent the teaching and influence that will 
encourage them to repeat their lawbreaking. There are 
criminals who have been sent to prison thirty times. They 
are not, needless to say, desirable company for weak and 
careless young men. By separating prisoners into classes 
much may be done towards reclaiming the young criminal. 

Prison Discipline. — Prisoners must be ruled with a wise 
and firm hand, but it is found that they do not need to 
be as harshly treated as was formerly thought necessary. 
They are required to take baths once a week and change 
clothes regularly. They must rise at six o'clock, be ready 
for breakfast at seven, and retire at nine in the evening. 
These regular habits must be insisted upon for no other 
reason than to preserve health. 

The Problem of Work. — No man, whether in prison or 
out, can long remain healthy and happy unless he has work 
to do. Every one who is worth consideration is willing to 
work if he has the opportunity. If the work is interesting 
and useful, he can lift his head in pride over a task well 
done. Not only do most men want to work, but the tax- 
payer who supports the prisons wishes to see the inmates 
self-supporting. If a prisoner is idle the taxpayer must 
pay his way. 

The old and cruel practice of leasing out the prisoners 
to contractors is being abolished in most states, and it is a 
serious problem to find suitable work for so many men 
with little or no training. Sometimes the prisoners are 
put to work making useful articles like chairs and brooms. 
One might think this was the very thing for them to do 
and there could be no possible objection. But when the 
articles are put on the market they must often be sold at a 
lower price than those made by labor outside the prison 



STATE AND COUNTY PRISON'S 



223 




A Convict-built Road, Florida. 



224 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

walls, and this lessens the price of the article and of labor 
outside. Free laborers naturally object to the public sale 
of prison-made goods for this reason, and they have a right 
to do so. To find work for prisoners that will not affect 
wages outside the prison is not an easy task. 

Labor on Roads. — For a long time cities put their 
prisoners to work on the streets in chains. There was 
great objection to this because it was unpleasant to have 
a chain gang always before the public eye. The men are 
likely to be offensive in their speech with one another, and 
this is a bad influence. 

These objections to chain gangs, however, do not hold so 
strongly in the country, where the population is sparse. 
Country roads in many sections are in a deplorable con- 
dition. Here prison labor does not affect free labor, since 
where the roads are not improved by convict labor they 
are very often not improved at all. At least this has been 
true in the past. Many of our Western states are now 
putting the prisoners to work building splendid macadam- 
ized roads, thus saving the state thousands of dollars 
and rendering the farms along them twice as valuable. 

Manufactures for State Use. — By no means all the 
prisoners can be used on the roads, so some other labor for 
the state must be found. In most states the convicts 
are at work on various articles that are sold to other state 
institutions or to counties, cities, or towns. School desks 
and furniture are thus made in some states. There is 
little objection to this, since the goods are not put in open 
market to compete in a way that will lower the price of 
free labor. 

Farm Produce. — In other states considerable farm prod- 
uce is raised. The price of farm produce is fixed by 
world-wide conditions. The current price is therefore 



STATE AXD COUNTY PRISONS 



225 



not reduced by that put on the market through prison 
labor, since the amount of such produce is relatively small. 
Life in the open tends to improve the health of the con- 
victs, and to benefit them in every way. 

Industrial Training. — In many places prisoners are 
taught a trade and given some schooling, so that when 
they are at liberty they will be able to support themselves 



uMWJjn, 


■ BB 


hi IN } . - 




*F~~0 \ll 


^ 



Courtesy <>_' Auburn Prison. 

A Schoolroom in the Auburn (N.Y.) Prison. 



in an honest way. It is a sad fact that many boys in prison 
have a better opportunity for industrial training than do 
those in our public schools. When possible, a variety of 
occupation should be provided in prison so that the prisoner 
can do that to which he is suited. Labor that is to his 
liking makes him cheerful and will do much to redeem his 
future and make him of service to the community. 
Q 



226 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

Wages to Prisoners. — Every convict should be per- 
mitted to earn fair wages — that is, he should be credited 
a certain amount of money for his labor. A part of his 
wages may be taken to pay the running expenses of the 
prison, the salaries of the officers, and the cost of food, cloth- 
ing, and lodging. The balance may be sent to his family, 
or, if he has none, it may be placed in the office bank to be 
given him when he is released. Nothing will help a man 
with a family so much as to feel that he is still contributing 
to their support ; and that though he has fallen, he is still 
a husband and father with a chance of regaining his stand- 
ing in the community where he lived. Often in our large 
cities when the father is sent to the workhouse, the family 
is without support and the mother is obliged to go out to 
work to keep her children from starvation. When there 
is no one at home to care for the children, they may drift 
into trouble and bad company, and very soon into crime. 
In many cases, if the state paid wages to prisoners, this 
misery could be prevented. 

The Confidence System. — Some prisons are sending 
out squads of men to work on the public roads, without 
armed overseers, but merely upon their promises and their 
honor. It is amazing how few of these " trusties," as they 
are called, break their word. The confidence placed in 
them makes men of them. Of course not all prisoners 
can be depended on in this way, but it is surprising what 
the honor system will do for many, and how much honor 
there is still left among lawbreakers when it is brought 
out by proper treatment and the respect they have for 
noble prison wardens. 

The Indeterminate Sentence. — In some states a great 
effort is being made to help criminals by not stating when 
they are sentenced how long they shall serve. The pres- 



STATE AND COUNTY PRISONS 227 

ent way is to send a man to prison for a definite term 
of one year, five years, or for life, and there has been 
slight chance of his being able to reduce that time. But 
the new idea is to make no time limit at the time of his 
sentence, but to allow him to work his way to liberty by 
good conduct while in prison. This indeterminate sentence 
creates hope instead of despair, and the convict is led to 
feel that his future is largely in his own hands. He has at 
least a fighting chance to regain some of the ground he has 
lost, and his self-respect is not totally destroyed. 

Pardon Boards. — While in most states the governor 
exercises the pardoning power, he has so many duties that 
he cannot know of the merits of the prisoners. He is 
elected by one party, and if he is too lenient in granting 
pardons, he is accused by the opposing party of doing it to 
win votes. The better plan is to have a pardoning board, 
of which he is not even a member, appointed by the gover- 
nor, to act as a court in granting pardons. In this way 
both justice and mercy can be shown the man who has gone 
wrong. 

The After-prison Period. — In many states when a man 
has served his term in prison he is simply turned out into 
the world. This is his hardest time, because his residence 
in a prison is against him, and people refuse to trust him or 
to give him a chance to work. Having no money and no 
friends, he often turns to his old associates in crime and 
becomes a lawbreaker a second time. Since the state 
spends so much money to keep a man in prison in order to 
protect society from him, it can surely afford to do some- 
thing after he is released to safeguard him so that he will 
not again become a state charge. 

The best way to look after men when released from prison 
is the parole plan. A prisoner is set at liberty on trial. 



2 28 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 



So long as he reports regularly to the parole officer and lives 
an honest, industrious life, he is at liberty. If he breaks 
his promises, he is returned to prison. 

A Modern Prison. — One of the most modern of the state 
prisons is that of Stillwater, Minn. The buildings are 
not of the expensive sort because they may need to be 
remodeled to meet the newer ideas that are put forth so 
frequently. They are well lighted and ventilated and 
in every way modern and thoroughly sanitary. The prison- 
ers here are classified and each class has a separate institu- 
tion. There is a manual training school for youthful 
prisoners, a reformatory, and a state prison. The prisoners 
are treated with much kindness in the hope of making good 
citizens of them. They are committed on the indeterminate 
sentence so that their term of punishment is largely in their 
own hands. They are all given work for which they are 
paid from ten to fifty cents a day and during their terms 
they have opportunity to learn several good trades. 




Courtesy of Warden of Stillwater Prison. 

Stillwater Prison, Minnesota. Known the World Over. 



STATE AND COUNTY PRISONS 229 

This institution is not a burden to the taxpayers of 
that state because it is self-supporting. It is even more 
than self-supporting as it makes a yearly profit above all 
expenses of some $50,000. In this prison there are two 
industries, the binder twine factory and the farm machinery 
factory, both furnishing their products to the farmers of 
Minnesota at prices so attractive that there is great demand 
for them. These two industries furnish fine training for 
the prisoners and as there are no other twine or farm ma- 
chinery industries in that state there is no one to offer 
objection. The success of the prison is largely due to an 
expert prison warden who is given a free hand in all matters. 

Questions 

1. Why are prisons needed ? 2. What have been the chief evils of 
county jails ? 3. Why should the sheriff be changed every few years ? 

4. Does not his experience make him better fitted for the place? 

5. What advantages would there be in giving the state full charge 
of our prisoners that are now cared for by the county ? 6. What 
objections may be given to the old-fashioned state prisons? 7. Give 
the two purposes of imprisonment. 8. Why should prisoners be 
classified? 9. Of what importance to prisoners is work? 10. What 
kind of work has been found suitable for convicts? 11. What diffi- 
culty in disposing of prison-made goods? 12. Why should wages be 
allowed prisoners? 13. Discuss the strong and weak points of the 
indeterminate sentence. 14. What are the difficulties of the after- 
prison period? 15. What is the parole system? 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS 

Poor Relief. — The method of giving relief to the poor 
is carried out differently in the different states. In some 
states the work is done by the town or township govern- 
ments. In the Southern states it is in the hands of the 
commissioners or other county officers. In many Western 
states both the township and county are interested. Some 
cities refuse to support paupers who have recently come to 
them ; then the county must take them in charge, or, as in 
Massachusetts and New York, this duty falls upon the 
state. It matters little what part of our government as- 
sumes this burden, the state, the county, or the town, the 
problem is the same ; and we are interested in the method. 

Outdoor Relief. — There are two ways of looking after 
the poor. One, called outdoor relief, is the giving of aid 
at the homes of the needy. This is the best method where 
the family needs assistance only for the time being. It 
works well in country places where every family is well 
known. It is not so successful when the county or city has 
charge, because many pauper families impose upon the 
public by asking aid when they are able to care for them- 
selves. These cases are now being watched and studied by 
visitors who make a careful investigation of each case be- 
fore giving aid. 

Indoor Relief. — Towns and counties frequently pay 
for the support of their poor in private houses, and able- 
bodied paupers are sometimes put to work. When the 

230 



CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS 



231 



number of paupers is large, it is necessary to provide alms- 
houses or poorhouses belonging to the town or county, 
and here the paupers live continuously. Poorhouses should 
be established on farms, where the inmates may help take 
care of themselves by working at gardening, or by other 
labor, so as to make the institution at least partially self- 
supporting. Where such poorhouses are provided the 
number who apply for help is smaller ; for many paupers 



* iaiff 



MBJ6 (fit 






Courtesy of Department of Public Charities, Nem York. 

Children's Garden, New York Children's Hospital. 



will not work, and shun any home where labor is expected 
of them. 

Homes for Children. — In the most careful state adminis- 
trations the children who must have a home are not sent 
to the poorhouse because the association with many of the 
older and worthless paupers has a bad influence upon them. 
The state sometimes supports a school for dependent 
children where they may not only get an education, but 



232 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

may learn some trade. From such schools the boys and 
girls are often taken into good homes and adopted. Often 
they grow up to be honored citizens. 

Hospitals. — For the sick and injured there are provided 
hospitals where free medical assistance may be had. Such 
hospitals are usually maintained by cities, though sometimes 
by the county. 

Asylums. — Many people who are unfortunate, such as 
the blind or feeble-minded or epileptic, cannot support 
themselves. The number of these in many counties and 
cities is too small to justify homes for them in every county, 
so the state has usually a great institution for each of the 
defective classes. We find state institutions for the blind, 
the deaf and dumb, and for the feeble-minded and the in- 
sane. The states providing homes for the epileptics are 
increasing in number. These state institutions are ruled 
by state boards usually appointed by the governor. 

Questions 

i. What two means are used in extending relief to the needy? 
2. What is meant by outdoor relief ? 3. By indoor relief ? 4. When 
is each most helpful ? 5. Discuss poorhouses. 6. What is now being 
done with dependent children ? 7. For the sick? 3. For defectives ? 



CHAPTER XXIX 
COMMISSIONERS AND COUNTRY ROADS 

Why our Roads are Bad. — Except that which goes 
on in the schools, there is scarcely a more important work 
in any county than the building and care of its roads. 
European countries commonly have fine roads, because 
they are constructed by skilled engineers under government 
service. But most states in our country still have their 
roads in charge of county officers. These county officers, 
though they may be good business men, are not students 
of scientific road building. And no sooner does a com- 
missioner or supervisor begin to learn some valuable lessons 
about roads than an election sweeps him out of office and 
puts a new and untrained man in his place. Conse- 
quently, although millions of dollars have been spent on 
American country roads, they are in the main a failure. 
The chief reason for our poor roads is not that we have re- 
fused to be taxed, but that we have not learned the im- 
portant lesson of getting men who are experts in road 
building as commissioners and keeping them in office. 

Importance of Good Roads. — Well-made highways 
enable farmers to save much time in marketing produce, 
and " time is money." Easy travel also saves the energy 
of the horse ; this means economy of feed. If the roads 
are in order, the farmer can use his team when the field 
work cannot be done ; and this reduces the idle time of the 
horses. If travel is easy, the farmer will go to market 
oftener, selling many odds and ends of farm produce that 

233 



234 CITY > STATE, AND NATION 




Bad Roads are Costly to the Farmer. 

otherwise might be left to go to waste because of the time 
it would take to dispose of it to advantage. For these and 
other reasons a fine public road makes the farms along the 
way more valuable. 

Aside from the money gain to the farmer, good roads 
encourage his family to move about more and to enjoy 
themselves socially. They gain a great deal by contact 
with their neighbors. They go oftener to church, to other 
social events, to lectures, and to the city. 

The older children may go farther to school if the roads 
will permit. Consolidated schools are thus made possible, 
and pupils may be transported at public expense some 
distance to the larger centralized schools, which have so 
many advantages over the one-room country schools. 
More expert teachers may be had, a trained superintendent 
can be employed ; the children are better graded and the 
larger classes create more enthusiasm in study and recita- 
tion. Centralized schools, besides being better equipped 



COMMISSIONERS AND COUNTRY ROADS 235 

in every way, may be more economically managed in one 
building, which requires only one heating system and one 
janitor. And all this is possible only when the roads are 
kept in good condition. 

City people also demand good country roads, because 
the better the roads, the more easily they obtain country 
produce and the cheaper it is. City people are using the 
country roads more every year for pleasure driving and for 
the automobiles. It is said that automobiles, because of 
the high rate of speed at which they go, do more toward 
wearing out the roads than all the heavy teaming of the 
farmers. The suction of the swift-moving wheels picks 
up all the finer particles and scatters dust far and wide. 
Because of the ravage done by the city automobiles, it is 
unjust to expect the farmers to build and keep the roads 
in repair. Moreover, the cost of the produce that the 
farmer takes to market is of as much concern to the people 
in the city who consume it, as it is to the man who has it to 
sell. 

More than two hundred and fifty million tons of freight 
are hauled from farms to the market or railroad stations 
each year. Counting the labor of men and of horses, the 
wear and tear of vehicles and harness, it costs, on an average, 
about twenty-three cents to move each one of these millions 
of tons a mile. Railroads haul a ton of freight for long dis- 
tances for less than a cent a mile. The farmer's distance to 
market averages nine miles, and so the cost of hauling a 
ton of farm produce to market averages two dollars and 
nine cents. Better roads would permit larger loads to be 
hauled in the same time, and fighter loads in much less 
time. 

The First Expert Road Builders. — The Romans were 
the first to solve the problem of how to build good high- 



236 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 



ways. The central government at Rome built all the roads 
and kept them up. They were made of stone by trained 
experts, and in so solid a manner that, though the surface 
has required repair from time to time, the stone foundations 
are as good to-day as when they were built two thousand 




The Cumberland Road. 



years ago. They will be serviceable for centuries yet to 
come. 

Our Early Roads. — The earliest American roads were 
built in Virginia, and led from the plantations to the land- 
ings on the rivers. These were simply mud roads built 
by the plantation owners. Hogsheads of tobacco were 
fitted with a pair of shafts for a horse and were thus rolled 
along these roads to the river landings by horse power. 



COMMISSIONERS AND COUNTRY ROADS 237 

Supplies for the plantations were hauled homeward in rude 
carts. 

Save the Cumberland Road, our national government 
has done very little road building. The task of constructing 
good highways through rough and hilly sections has been 
poorly done and at great expense. There are many people 
who think our national government will again enter the 
field of building good wagon roads. In the early days many 
long roads were made and paid for by private parties. 
These parties then made . every one who wished to use 
them pay a toll. There are now but few toll roads. 

The Road Tax. — There are two methods of paying road 
taxes practiced in different parts of our land. One way is 
for the farmer to take his team and work on the road long 
enough to pay for the tax levied against him. This method 
is a failure, for the farmers seldom know how to build good 
roads. They care very little how they work so long as 
they put in their time and get back to their crops. 

The other method is much more satisfactory. It is this : 
Each farmer pays his road tax in cash, and the money is 
used to employ men who are practiced in road building. 
Sometimes a man is employed the year round to prevent 
the roads from getting out of repair. " A stitch in time 
saves nine," and so it is with a shovelful of gravel. A man 
and a horse and cart kept busy at the gravel pit all the 
year through are worth many times more in securing good 
roads than all the " working out " of taxes. 

The State's Part. — Many people are now coming to 
see that the state ought to keep up as well as build at least 
the main roads. This will insure the employment of road 
engineers, and it will be done in a permanent manner. In 
many states the cost of road building is not all saddled 
upon the township or county. A just method is to require 



238 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 




Courtesy of W arner-Quinlan Asphalt Co. 

An Asphalt Road, New York State. 

the people of the locality who use the particular road to 
pay one third of the cost of its building, the county one 
third, and the state one third. In other states, the main 
through roads leading from county to county are receiving 
more attention from the state; while cross roads, which 
have only local use and travel, are left to the people of the 
locality. Most states now have a department of highways 
with a trained road expert in charge. 

Drainage and Grading. — It is useless to build a road 
without first providing a dry roadbed. Standing water 
and the grinding of wagon wheels will soon reduce any 
road to a quagmire. The first step towards making per- 
manent roads is to provide permanent drainage by ditching 
and tiling where it is necessary. 

Next in importance to drainage comes grading. The 
narrower the roadbed, the easier it is to keep in order, be- 
cause water will not so readily collect in it, but roads must 



COMMISSIONERS AND COUNTRY ROADS 239 

be wide enough for teams to pass. The surface should be 
slightly rounded to shed water quickly, and the ruts must 
be filled as quickly as they appear. Here is where the 
caretaker gets in his best work by preventing deep ruts 
from forming and thus keeping the roadbed dry. 

Surfacing Roads. — After drainage and grading comes 
the surfacing of the road. On a clay road a fairly hard 
and inexpensive surface may be made by thoroughly mixing 
gravel with the clay. This packs well and makes a hard 
surface, so if the mixture is of sufficient thickness, the road 
will bear heavy traffic. 

Sand roads may be greatly improved by surfacing with 
clay. Sand mixed with clay does not make so firm a road- 
bed as do gravel and clay, but it makes a fairly good surface. 

There are tens of thousands of miles of loam roads in the 
central West, and these roads are almost bottomless in 
bad weather. Loam takes water like a sponge, and on 
such roads it is not an uncommon sight to see an empty 
wagon mired and abandoned. Farmers are told not to 
work their fields when it is wet, because it will harden them 
and they will bake afterwards. This is the very reason 
why loam roads should have the surface stirred when wet. 
Such working is called puddling. It brings the soil grains 
in closer contact, making a harder surface than before. 

The tool most useful for puddling is the split-log drag. 
The halves of the log are held on edge a few feet apart by 
rounds inserted like the rounds of a ladder. This drag 
used on muddy roads will smear or puddle the surface, 
making it tough and hard. By lengthening one chain and 
allowing the inner end of the drag to lag behind as it is 
drawn along, it fills up the ruts and works all loose mate- 
rial towards the middle of the road. This gives the surface 
a rounded shape for good drainage. 



240 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

This drag is very useful on dry roads, also. By riding 
on the outer or ditch-end of the drag and driving once on 
either side of the road, the ruts are filled and the center 
made higher. There should be a law requiring all heavy 
hauling to be done with wide-tire wagons only. Wide 
tires pack and harden the road like a roller, whereas narrow 
tires cut and injure the road surface. 

Different kinds of materials are used in surfacing roads. 
When suitable gravel can be found it will make an excellent 
road. In communities near the coast, shells from the 
sea are often used to surface roads, with satisfactory results. 

Probably the most popular material for surfacing is 
broken stone. Stone-bedded roads are said to be macadam- 
ized, because a Scotch engineer named Macadam was 
the first to use and urge this kind of road. 

The old Roman roads were surfaced with stone, which 
was often several feet thick and thus very expensive. 
Macadam believed that a smaller amount of stone could 
be made to serve just as well, and he urged that it would 
cost much less. The world has come to see the correctness 
of his ideas, and now macadamized roads are found every- 
where. 

The Building of Macadam Roads. — In order to build a 
macadam road the roadbed is first given the slope desired 
so the water will quickly flow to the side gutters. After 
this, the bed is rolled hard with a heavy roller ; then it is 
covered with a layer of coarse stone and rolled again. Then 
another layer of finer crushed rock is spread on top and 
rolled until it works in between the pieces of the coarser 
stone. A layer of still finer crushed stone or sand is spread 
next on the surface and sprinkled with water, after which 
it is rolled until a smooth, hard surface is formed. Such 
roads are from six to twelve inches thick. They cost from 



COMMISSIONERS AND COUNTRY ROADS 



241 




Building Permanent County Roads. 



three thousand to six thousand dollars per mile, but in- 
telligent farmers realize that such tax money is well invested. 

Brick Roads. — It is said that the best road material to 
resist the wear of automobiles is brick. Brick pavements 
cost considerably more than the macadamized road, but 
they are more satisfactory in many ways. They last longer, 
they require less repair, and they are not so dusty. In 
many places, as in Cleveland, Ohio, the brick pavements 
are being extended from the city limits to the county line, 
where the adjoining counties are planning to take up the 
work and extend the roads to other cities. 

Concrete Roads. — Another kind of road coming into 
favor is the concrete road. States like Wisconsin, Ohio, 
and others are building these hard concrete roads. It is 
perhaps rather early to judge of the wearing quality and 
the general satisfaction given by these thoroughfares, but 
many people believe in them. Care must be taken to 
allow for the expansion of concrete roads in warm weather. 



242 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

Expansion joints must be provided at frequent intervals 
to prevent the roads from bulging up under the summer 
sun as concrete sidewalks sometimes do when not properly 
laid. 

The Draft Dependent on the Road. — How much a 
team can pull depends upon the firmness and smoothness 
of the roadbed and upon the grade. A load that three 
horses can just pull on level, hard asphalt would require 
seven horses on smooth block pavement, fourteen horses 
on cobblestone, forty horses on an ordinary country road 
of earth, and eighty on a sandy road. 

The grade is also important. It has been found that if 
a horse can just pull a thousand pounds on a level road, he 
can draw only nine hundred pounds up a one per cent 
grade, eight hundred pounds up a two per cent grade, 
four hundred pounds up a five per cent grade, and only 
two hundred fifty pounds up a ten per cent grade. A one 
per cent grade is one that rises one foot in each one hundred 
feet of distance, a two per cent grade is one that rises two 
feet for each hundred feet, and so on. It is therefore 
much better, under most circumstances, to build the road 
around a hill than over it. 

Questions 

i. Discuss the commissioner's duty in caring for roads. 2. In what 
ways do good roads assist the farmer? 3. What effect have roads 
on schools and schooling? 4. Why are city people interested in 
country roads? 5. In what ways are road taxes commonly paid? 
6. Which is the better way and why ? 7. Suggest a fair way of pay- 
ing for roads. 8. How does the macadam road differ from the 
Roman roads? 9. What is an inexpensive way to surface a clay 
road ? A sandy road ? A loam road ? 10. What can you say of the 
split-log drag? n. Discuss brick roads. 12. What can be said in 
favor of concrete roads ? 



CHAPTER XXX 
STATE GOVERNMENT 

Written Charters. — Prior to the Revolution, the Ameri- 
can colonies ruled themselves under charters granted by 
the English Parliament. These charters were written 
documents outlining the kind of government the colonies 
must have, but granting them some freedom in certain 
affairs. After the Revolution the colonies became states, 
and as they were familiar with written charters, they con- 
tinued to want a definite outline, or framework of govern- 
ment. Thus they adopted state constitutions. 

State Constitutions. — The constitution of a state is 
its supreme law so far as state authority goes. All laws 
passed by the state legislatures must square themselves 
with the state constitution ; and if a law that violates the 
constitution passes the legislature, it may be brought 
before a court in a case, and the court will pronounce it 
null and void, of no effect. 

Lawmaking. — State constitutions place all lawmaking 
powers in the hands of a legislature, the members of which 
are chosen by the people, usually for a term of two years. 
The legislature has two parts or sections, generally called 
houses ; one, the senate or upper house ; and the other, the 
assembly or lower house. The idea of two houses was 
copied from some of the colonies or from the English 
Parliament. 

There is a reason for having two houses, because they 
serve to check each other in unwise acts. People are 

243 



244 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

urging laws about all sorts of things, and in many cases 
these proposed laws would do more harm than good. 
Therefore it is well to have a law thoroughly considered 
before it is saddled upon the people. 

A bill passed by one house may be thrown out by the 
other, or, if it passes both, it may be vetoed by the governor. 
In case of a veto it must again pass both houses with a 
higher majority, usually two thirds, in order to become a 
law without the governor's consent. 

A member of one of the houses introduces a bill. It is 
put in the hands of the clerk, who reads the bill either in 
full or by title, after which it is referred to the committee 
having the matter with which the bill is concerned in charge. 
After this committee has considered it, they may not 
deem it worthy to be reported back to the house, in which 
case the bill is said to have been " killed in committee. " 
But if the committee thinks best to bring back a report 
on the bill, it is read a second, and then a third time, and 
debated and amended. Finally, it is voted upon, and if a 
majority vote in its favor, it is signed by the presiding 
officer and sent to the other house. Here it again goes 
through the process of three readings on three separate 
days, with debate and possible amendment, and is brought 
to a vote. If it receives a favorable majority in the second 
house, it then goes to the governor. The governor has 
from ten to thirty days to decide whether or not he will 
sign it. If he is opposed to it, he returns it to the house in 
which it originated, stating his objections. This is called 
the governor's veto. The legislatures of most states may 
yet pass the bill by a two-thirds vote in its favor in each 
house. In this case the bill is passed over the governor's 
veto and becomes a law. 

Local Lawmaking. — The state legislatures do not 



STATE GOVERNMENT 245 

make all our laws. For local affairs, it seems best to keep 
the government as close to the people as possible. So 
the legislature gives certain powers of lawmaking and law 
enforcement to school districts, villages, towns, cities, and 
counties. The city council, the county commissioners, 
and the school board are legislative or lawmaking bodies, 
who make laws or ordinances within certain limits. 

Enforcing State Laws. — The state constitutions place 
the executive power, that is, the power to enforce the state 
laws, in the hands of a governor, secretary of state, attor- 
ney-general, treasurer, and other officers, chief of whom is 
the governor. 

The governor reports to the legislature upon the condition 
of the state and recommends that certain laws be passed. 
When there is need of quick action, he sometimes calls the 
legislature into extra session, or meeting. In nearly every 
state the governor must pass upon bills passed by the 
legislature before they become a law. He may pardon or 
lessen the punishment of criminals. But the governor's 
chief duty is to see that the laws are obeyed. He is com- 
mander in chief of the state militia, which obeys him as 
the police do the mayor. Each locality, city, and county 
also has executive officers that are responsible for most of 
the enforcement of laws. 

The secretary of state keeps the public records, such as 
the acts of the legislature; the attorney-general gives 
legal advice to state officers and is the lawyer for the state ; 
the state treasurer has charge of all money affairs. Other 
state officers have minor duties. 

State Courts. — In each state there is a complete system 
of courts for explaining the meaning of the laws and for 
deciding cases of dispute brought before them. At the 
head of all is the supreme court that acts for the entire 



246 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

state and hears cases carried up from lower courts. When 
a lower court decides a case at law, if either party is dis- 
satisfied with the decision, he may appeal it, that is, carry 
it to a higher court which he hopes may decide differently. 
Such cases are often appealed to the state supreme court, 
whose decision is usually final. 

The Judges. — It is very important that the judges of 
our courts should be able and upright men. A corrupt 
judge may use the great power conferred on him in favor of 
certain parties or corporations which in return give him 
bribes or help to keep him in office. An honest judge who 
is ignorant of facts may also do much harm, and so different 
states have tried various ways to secure the ablest judges. 
In some states the judges are elected by the people for short 
terms. This is a bad plan for two reasons : because the 
people sometimes choose men unfitted for the work, and 
because the really great or able lawyers can earn so much 
more in private practice that few are self-sacrificing enough 
to accept a judgeship for a short term. Moreover, a judge 
no sooner becomes acquainted with the elements of his 
office when he must go before the people again for reelection. 
A competent judge ought tip be kept in office for life, or 
during good behavior. The governor has ways of deter- 
mining what lawyers have the qualities of a judge much 
better than the voters. Thus the states where judges are 
appointed by the governor for a long term of years usually 
get the best and ablest men on the bench. 

Questions 

1. What are written charters? 2. What is a state constitution? 
3. What happens when a law is made that is contrary to the constitu- 
tion ? 4. What body makes the laws for a state ? 5. Why were two 
houses thought necessary? 6. How are laws made? 7. What part 
does the governor usually have in making laws ? ^ 8. Do the state 



STATE GOVERNMENT 247 

legislatures make all the laws that the people of the state must obey ? 
9. Who enforces obedience to state laws? 10. Give some other 
powers of this executive. 11. Name some other state officers. 12. 
What is the purpose of the state courts ? 13. How are judges usually- 
chosen ? 14. Why is the governor usually better fitted to choose a 
judge than are the voters ? 



CHAPTER XXXI 
THE VOTERS 

Representative Government. — Ours is a country ruled 
by the people. But the country is so large, and the people 
so busy earning a living for their families that they cannot 
all get together to make laws and judge disputes, so they 
send men to represent them in carrying on the government. 
We call these men representatives ; and a government of 
this sort, a representative government. 

Citizens Who Vote. — Not all the people, nor even all 
the citizens, may have a share in the election of these rep- 
resentatives and other officials or in the work of the govern- 
ment. Children, for instance, are citizens if they are born 
in this country or if their parents have become naturalized, 
yet it would be absurd to allow children to vote. To vote 
intelligently a person must have some knowledge of political 
affairs and some experience in life and in dealing with men. 
Heretofore, for these reasons, only men have been allowed 
to vote, as they have owned most of the property and 
transacted most of the business of the country. 

Manhood Suffrage. — We have to-day in the greater 
number of states what is called manhood suffrage, that is, 
practically all men of voting age have the right to use the 
ballot. This has not always been the case in our country. 
In early days no man was allowed to take part in the elections 
unless he owned real estate, for it was thought unsafe to 
permit men who paid no taxes to share in the choosing 
of officers and the voting of taxes upon the people. Grad- 

248 



THE VOTERS 249 

ually the states have done away with the property-owning 
qualification by changing the state laws so that most male 
citizens may now vote. 

The Legal Age. — The age limit in all the states for voting 
is twenty-one years, and no one younger is allowed to vote. 
Every voter must have been, for a short time, a resident 
of the district in which he votes, and he must have lived 
in the state a longer period, usually one year. In most 
states only citizens, native born or naturalized, may vote ; 
but there are several states that permit foreigners who 
have announced their intention of becoming citizens to vote. 

The Fifteenth Amendment. —At the close of the Civil 
War the United States adopted the Fifteenth Amendment 
to the Constitution so as to give the negroes the right to 
vote. Since that time, many of the Southern states have 
passed laws to exclude the most ignorant blacks and whites, 
because these ignorant people are not sufficiently well in- 
formed to vote wisely. The Fifteenth Amendment forbids 
states to deny the right to vote on the basis of " race, color, 
or previous condition of servitude," but there is nothing to 
hinder any state from excluding people from voting for 
such reasons as inability to read and write or on the basis 
of age or not holding property. 

Woman's Suffrage. — In a large and growing number of 
states women have the same voting privileges as men. 
They vote for all state and local officers and for presidential 
electors and representatives to Congress. In a few other 
states women may vote only at city elections for city 
officers, and, in more than twenty states, they have a share 
in choosing school officers. Sentiment seems to be growing 
in favor of complete woman's suffrage in all the states. 
Where they already have this right they have used it fully 
as well as men, and in a few cases the women have defeated 



250 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

unworthy " machine " candidates who would otherwise 
have been elected. In a referendum election the women 
of Seattle succeeded in ousting an undesirable mayor and 
in defeating him when he again came up for reelection. 

The Excluded. — Not only are children excluded from 
voting everywhere and women in most states, but several 
classes of men are debarred from the franchise. Persons 
who are insane or feebleminded are universally excluded 
from voting, as are also male criminals who have not 
received pardon for their crimes. Paupers who are taken 
care of in public institutions are frequently denied the vot- 
ing privilege. In a few states no one is allowed to vote 
who cannot read and write. This is true of nearly all of 
the Southern states. In this way they have shut out the 
majority of negroes, who in some states outnumber the 
whites. 

Questions 

i. What is meant by a representative government? 2. Who are 
allowed to vote in your state? 3. Discuss the right to vote in the 
early days of our government. 4. What is the Fifteenth Amendment ? 
5. What is the legal voting age ? 6. Discuss the progress of woman's 
suffrage. 7. Does your state provide for it ? 8. Arrange a class 
debate on the subject. 9. What classes of men are excluded from 
voting ? 



CHAPTER' XXXII 
ELECTIONS 

Electing Public Officers. — When voters go to the polls 
to cast their ballots they vote for those who have been pre- 
viously nominated for office. These nominations are made 
several weeks before the election, usually in conventions 
held by each political party or at a primary. The time 
between the conventions or primary and the election day 
is used by the nominees or candidates and their party 
friends to carry on a vigorous campaign to win votes for 
their ticket. Sometimes there are processions, speeches, 
and other exciting demonstrations during the campaign. 
Money is collected and plans are made to get the men 
who usually stay at home and forget to vote, to the polls 
on election day. 

A Nominating Convention. — If we were to attend a 
county nominating convention, we should find, besides 
hundreds of spectators, a very excited gathering of several 
hundred delegates' who have been sent by the various pre- 
cincts and towns to name candidates for the party ticket. 
The convention is called to order by a chairman chosen 
to preside. Nominations are made for one office at a time. 
The candidate who gets a majority of the votes of the 
delegates is declared to be the party nominee for the par- 
ticular office, and his name is placed on the ticket. 

Sometimes there have been corrupt methods used in the 
convention to secure the nomination. Votes of some of 
the delegates have been bought, and if the parties are un- 

251 



252 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

equal in strength in a particular county, a nomination is 
apt to mean certain election. Therefore unscrupulous poli- 
ticians have sometimes tried to control the party nominat- 
ing conventions. Such instances of corruption in conven- 
tions has led the people in many states to demand a better 
way of choosing their candidates. 

Direct Nominations. — This new method of selecting 
party candidates is called direct primaries. All the party 
men hold an election called a primary at the regular voting 
places. The man who gets the largest number of votes for 
each office respectively in this direct primary is the nominee 
of the party for that particular office. Other parties choose 
their candidates in the same way, at the same time, and in 
this direct manner. This method offers less opportunity 
for bribery and corruption in elections. It also takes 
away power from the party " bosses " and political " ma- 
chines," and gives it to the voters of the party. 

The Australian Ballot. — In former days men bought 
votes on election day and marched the men at once to the 
ballot box to make sure they kept their promise. It was 
almost impossible in those times for a man to deceive any 
one as to how he voted. Many evils sprang from this 
lack of secrecy in voting. Besides the money bribe, men 
were known to lose their positions if they did not vote as 
their employers wished them to, and it was impossible to 
conceal from the men standing by which ballot they cast. 
To improve these conditions, most states have now adopted 
a method of balloting in secret, called the Australian ballot 
system, because it is copied from Australia. The names 
of all the candidates of every party are put on the same 
ballot, a column of names for each party. The voter takes 
this ballot and goes to a private booth, where he may mark 
it unobserved. He places a cross before the name of each 



ELECTIONS 2 S3 

candidate for whom he votes. Then, folding his ballot, he 
sees it deposited in the box. No one need know how he 
voted unless he wishes to make it known. The secrecy 
of the Australian ballot has aided greatly in purifying 
elections. 

False Representation. — Lincoln said our government 
was a government of the people, by the people, and for 
the people, but there has been much dissatisfaction with 
the manner in which the representatives do the people's 
work. After a man has been placed in office, he may break 
every promise he made before the election, and it has been 
difficult for the people to punish him, until he came up for 
reelection. Meantime, perhaps, he has done many things 
that were contrary to the people's wishes, and left undone 
much that they elected him to do. 

The Referendum. — So there has been put into practice 
in several states methods of holding the officers more 
nearly in line with the wishes of the people. Certain 
states have adopted the Initiative and Referendum. The 
Referendum requires, under certain conditions, bills passed 
by the legislative body to be submitted to the people at an 
election before they may become a law. This enables the 
people to veto, or vote down, measures that are not to their 
liking. 

The Initiative. — When the people desire a law that their 
legislature refuses to pass, the bill may be framed and sub- 
mitted to the people, and if they vote to adopt it, it may 
become a law without the approval of the legislature. 
This is known as the Initiative. 

The Recall. — Still another weapon the people of some 
states have come to wield in order to force their officers to 
do their bidding. This is known as the Recall. An officer 
who has violated his trust or broken his promise to the 



254 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

public may be recalled, or dismissed, by a vote of the 
people. Such laws as the Initiative, Referendum, and the 
Recall force officers, lawmakers, and other public servants 
to regard the people's rights and wishes. 

Long and Short Ballots. — Another difficulty has been 
met in the rapid growth of our country. More and more 
officers are needed, and so many names have been gradually 
added to the ballot that the number confuses the voter. 
There have been as many as twenty-five to fifty different 
offices to be filled at one election, and the voter is handed a 
ballot several feet long with several hundred names on it. 
It is impossible for him to know very many of the candidates, 
or to make himself familiar with their merits. So he must 
cast his ballot blindly, accepting the advice of the news- 
papers, which may be more or less biased, or vote a " straight 
ticket." This is just what the politicians of the " machine " 
wish him to do. It has been easy for them by controlling 
the nominations to secure their men in this manner regard- 
less of fitness, while the voter is powerless to select the 
unfit men from those that are honest and competent. 

In order to overcome this hindrance to good government, 
the short ballot has been devised. Under this plan only 
the most important officers, few in number, are elected by 
the people. These candidates the people can become ac- 
quainted with, their merits can be known. Consequently, 
better men are chosen to office. All the lesser offices are 
filled through appointment by the elected officers, who may 
in this manner be held responsible to the people. 

Voting Machines. — The work of counting the ballots 
after election day, especially when long ballots are used, 
is very heavy and very expensive. It requires many hours, 
and the complete election returns are often delayed for 
several days, largely on this account. Meantime the people 



ELECTIONS 



b$ 



Utyp GtomuumniFaltfi of iKaaaarbuBftta 



List of Candidates nominated, to be voted for in the Town of Amherst, Nov. 8, 1 9 1 0. 
SPECIMEN BALLOT. 



Penalty for wilfully defacing, tearing down, removing or deatroying a liat of candidates or 
fine not exceeding one hundred dollara. 



r Political D 



fiOVricMjI! 



COlfOREMMAH - 



EBEN S. DRAPER 



U.?i L rERTOI-aii 



EUGENE N. POM 1 1 1 



FREDERIC! D. GILLETT-. . 



EUGENE N.rOSX-*N«A 



JraicnlK Prtutnirt Not. fi|g 



JOHN A. DLLS - <i*«.™ 



P;liZ E. EHIIIEK : 



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DANIEL A. WEE 



EPWAE9 1. BUCELelfC— t *.-,. - 



B. ELT^taM, 



town a I mn •• 



THOMAS F. CASSIDT m «..,— DflMcnrjc IUcpeatent III. Paper) 



L0UI8 A. FROTHINGHAM him* 



luri 



'ATRH'K MAHOBET 



WILLIAM G. MrfllllEL 



FRAJfl C. BETAIT-^i-WL" 



JOHH B. SCBO0HAIUI-*. *m- 



HARRIET D'ORSAT-.-n 



CHARLES J. MARTELL- 



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WILLIAM M. OLlN-,1 m» 



BEPBEaiNTATtVE 171 OEKIBAL COUBT BUrk OITS 



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CARL FREDRIKSON-,. »«.. 



THOMAS A. FRISSELL— - *«u* - 



SILVESTER J. McBRIDE- 



DVDl E UTH i 



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CHARLES C, PAINE— r, 



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W1LI.IAM A. PAVENPOKT ■ - 



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Massachusetts Ballot. 



256 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

and particularly the candidates are waiting with anxiety 
to know the results. For these and other reasons, voting 
machines have been invented that will give the result of an 




A Sample Voting Machine. 

election immediately at the close of the polls, saving great 
expense and labor as well as days of suspense. 

Patriotism To-day. — While corruption and mismanage- 
ment have grown in many departments of our state, city, 
and county offices, new means are being devised daily to 
check the evils and bring good government near to the 
people and more nearly under their control — always pro- 



ELECTIONS 257 

viding that the honest and intelligent citizens of our country 
do their part by voting. 

Strange as it may seem, it has usually been more difficult 
to get the intelligent citizens and the leading business men 
to the polls than it is to get the ignorant and undesirable 
ones. Herein lies the real danger to a government by the 
people. The intelligence and judgment of our wisest and 
keenest men are necessary to a clean, sane, honest, and 
effective administration of affairs ; but we will not have 
this sort of man in office unless men who are equally honest 
and wise work for his election in the campaign, and vote 
for him on election day. No citizen who is careless or 
indifferent about going to the polls on election day can be 
regarded as truly patriotic. 

The old notion of patriotism was that if a man was willing 
to fight for his flag in case of war, he was a patriot and a 
lover of his country. To-day we consider a man a patriot 
if he fights for his community and the welfare of his neigh- 
bors in days of peace. We rank no one as an ideal citizen 
unless he thoughtfully strives for what is best for all the 
people. It is not only voting on election day, it is a ques- 
tion of giving time and hard work to public affairs. 

Questions 

1. How are candidates usually nominated for office? 2. What is 
the difference between nominating a candidate and electing him ? 
3. Describe a nominating convention. 4. What objections have been 
given to the nominating convention ? 5. What is meant by direct 
nominations ? 6. In what way is this better than the old method ? 
7. Describe the Australian ballot system. 8. What is the Referendum ? 
9. What is meant by the Initiative? 10. What by the Recall? 
11. Discuss the long ballot and its weaknesses. 12. How are these 
corrected by the short ballot ? 13. Why are voting machines being 
used? 14. Is a voter's duty merely to vote? 15. What is a fuller 
meaning of patriotism ? 



PART III: THE NATION 

CHAPTER XXXIII 
THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT 

Government during the Revolution. — The thirteen 
American colonies went through the Revolutionary War 
with no central government of consequence. They had a 
Continental Congress that was made up of delegates from 
the various colonies, but there was no law giving power to 
this body. The colonies got along together and fought 
through the war without quarreling simply because this 
was the only way to win freedom from King George the 
Third. 

In the midst of the war (1777) a form of union, or central 
government, called the Articles of Confederation, was made 
and sent around to the different states to be adopted ; but 
it was not until the war was almost over (1781) that all the 
colonies had decided to unite under a central government. 

The Weak Confederation. — The people of America 
had come to hate the idea of a king, for they felt that King 
George had been a tyrant. What they wanted was a form 
of government by the people wherein they could be their 
own rulers. They were so fearful of giving their own central 
government any power over them that the Articles they 
set up for themselves were very weak indeed. 

They had created a Congress to make laws for the new 
union, or confederation, as it was called. But after the 
laws were made there was no executive, such as a president, 

258 



THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT 259 

to enforce them. Neither did the Articles provide for a 
court of judges to explain and apply the laws when Congress 
had made them. Since there was no power to force the 
states to obey the union laws, the states continued to do as 
they pleased. When Congress asked for money to pay 
debts contracted during the war. many states ignored the 
call. Consequently the people came to have very little 
respect for the central government, and the best men would 
not accept the office of Congressman. Since the states had 
all the power, they even grew careless about sending rep- 
resentatives to Congress. This brought out another weak- 
ness of the general government, for in this Congress each 
state had one vote, no matter how many representatives 
it sent; and no law could be passed without the vote of 
nearly all the states. So if several >tates neglected to send 
representatives, no laws whatever could be passed by 
Congress. 

The control of commerce and taxes, even, was left to the 
states acting separately. Naturally, in time the states 
became jealous of one another and began to quarrel among 
themselves. They made laws taxing goods that came across 
the border from other states. The farmers of Connecticut, 
for instance, could not send firewood down to New York 
City without paying a tariff on it. Some states began to 
make " spite " laws. Each one had a different tariff on 
the goods from foreign countries, and everything was in 
confusion. With no money, and no power to collect any, 
and with no power to enforce national laws, Congress was 
helpless, and the country was drifting into anarchy. Euro- 
pean countries believed the states could not long rule them- 
selves, since they were on the point of lighting, and England 
and France were waiting for the time when the}' should 
again come and take possession of the American states. 



260 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

This period of danger in our history from 1783 to 1788 has 
been called " the critical period," for the states came 
perilously near losing all they had gained by six long years 
of war. All this happened because each state was anxious 
to keep all the powers of government, making the con- 
federated or central government only a weakling. 

The Constitutional Convention. — But our great leaders 
saw the danger. Washington, Franklin, Hamilton, Madi- 
son, and other leaders determined to save the country from 
breaking up into thirteen separate nations. Maryland 
and Virginia had been having frequent disputes concerning 
the navigation of the Potomac River and of Chesapeake 
Bay. This dispute led to the calling of several meetings 
to which different states were invited to send delegates. 
One of these meetings was held in Annapolis in 1786, but 
little was done except that Alexander Hamilton proposed 
that a general convention, representing all the states, 
should be called to meet in Philadelphia for the purpose of 
amending the Articles of Confederation. 

This great Convention at Independence Hall in Phila- 
delphia met in 1787, and Washington was unanimously 
chosen president of the Convention. Among the noted 
men present were Franklin, Madison, Roger Sherman, 
Eldridge Gerry, Robert Morris, Hamilton, and many others 
among the great statesmen of America. The Convention 
soon decided that it was not worth while to try to patch 
up the old Articles of Confederation, and it was boldly 
proposed to form a new and strong central, or federal 
government — a government with power enough to com- 
mand respect both at home and abroad. 

Problems before the Convention. — There were many 
differences of opinion and not a few warm debates as to 
the kind of government needed ; but the strong influence 



THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT 261 

of Washington and of Franklin held the men together until 
they found ways to compromise their difficulties. 

Representation in Congress. — The Convention soon 
decided that Congress should be composed of two houses, 
but when it came to fix upon the number of men to be sent 
by each state to make up these houses, a loud disagreement 
arose. Tlje large states insisted that the number to be 
sent from each state should vary according to the popula- 
tion, that is, if one state had twice the population of another, 
it should have twice as many representatives, or members, 
in Congress. 

The smaller states objected strongly to this notion, 
saying that it would place the smaller states in subjection 
to the larger ones. In 1790 the four largest states had 32 
representatives, while the other nine had between them 
only 33. The small states declared that each state should 
have an equal vote, regardless of size. It was evident that 
unless this was done Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsyl- 
vania would have almost as many votes in Congress as the 
other ten states combined. For weeks this debate con- 
tinued, almost to the point of splitting the Convention. 

At last the delegates from Connecticut suggested a 
compromise. In the lower house, to be called the House 
of Representatives, each state was to be represented accord- 
ing to its population ; but in the upper house, or Senate, 
each state should have two senators. The Connecticut 
compromise satisfied the states of lesser population, and 
was finally adopted. 

The Three-fifths Compromise. — The next difficulty 
arose over whether or not slaves should be counted in deter- 
mining the population that decided the number of repre- 
sentatives a state should have. The South wished to count 
the slaves so as to increase its number of representatives ; 



262 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

but the delegates from the North objected, saying that 
since the slaves were looked upon as property with no 
voice in the government in the Southern states, they should 
not be counted for representation in Congress. After much 
serious debate another compromise was suggested, known 
as the three-fifths compromise. Five slaves were to be 
counted as equal to three free persons in determining repre- 
sentation in Congress, and also in levying any direct tax 
that Congress should see fit to lay upon the states. Since 
Congress has levied a tax directly upon the people only 
two or three times since the beginning of the govern- 
ment, we see the South got the better end of this 
compromise. 

The Control of Commerce. — The next dispute arose over 
giving Congress full power to regulate all foreign trade 
and commerce as well as that between the states. Most of 
the delegates saw the importance and the necessity of plac- 
ing this control of commerce in the hands of Congress, but 
some of the Southern states feared Congress might stop the 
foreign importation of slaves. A third compromise was 
effected, giving Congress full control over foreign commerce, 
but stating that the importation of slaves should not be 
prohibited prior to the year 1808. 

There were still other compromises found necessary. In 
fact, the whole Constitution has been called a " group of 
compromises." After four months of debate the members 
had finished their stupendous task of making the Constitu- 
tion of the United States. So they signed their names to 
it and adjourned. 

The Constitution before the People. — A splendid form 
of government it was, but the states had not yet accepted 
it, and there were many doubts and fears as to how the 
people would look upon it. The Constitution was sent to 



THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT 263 

the states to be accepted or rejected by state conventions 
to which the people sent delegates to act for them. 

There was a stormy session in every state convention, 
some of which at first rejected the new Constitution ; but 
the arguments of Hamilton, Madison, and others in favor 
of it were printed and spread broadcast, and these finally 
convinced the majority of the people. When the Constitu- 
tion had been accepted by nine states in 1788, it was estab- 
lished, and preparations were made to elect officers under 
the new government. The other states voted later to come 
into the new union. 

Amending the Constitution. -The fathers of the Con- 
stitution did not imagine they had constructed a form 
of government so perfect that it would never need to be 
changed or improved. So they provided a way of amend- 
ing it. By a two-thirds vote of both houses, Congress may 
frame an amendment and submit it to the states for their 
approval ; or, if two thirds of the state legislatures demarfd 
it, Congress must frame and submit an amendment upon 
the subject desired. In either case, three fourths of all 
the states, acting either through their legislatures or through 
conventions called especially in each state for that purpose, 
must ratify or approve the amendment before it can become 
a part of the Constitution. 

In all, seventeen amendments have been made to the 
original Constitution, two of them recently. One of the 
recent amendments has given Congress power to levy an 
income tax, and the other gives the people of the United 
States the right to choose their United States senators 
directly, instead of leaving their election to the state 
legislatures. 

Checks and Balances. — The Constitution is so framed 
that one part of our government acts as a check upon an- 



264 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

other part. One officer is given a duty to perform, while 
another is chosen to superintend the first with other duties 
besides. If Congress passes an unwise measure, the Presi- 
dent may veto it ; while if he vetoes a wise bill, Congress 
may yet pass it over his veto by a two-thirds vote. If 
Congress should enact a law which is forbidden by the Con- 
stitution, the Supreme Court declares it null and void and 
of no effect. Then if the people are dissatisfied with the 
court's decision and wish to preserve the law, they may 
amend the Constitution and give Congress the power to 
make such a law. If the President willfully violates his 
trust, he may be impeached and removed. If a Senator or 
Congressman becomes corrupt, the house to which he be- 
longs may expel him. 

These checks and balances are found also in our state 
and city governments. 

Questions 

1. What was the Continental Congress? 2. What were the 
Articles of Confederation ? 3. Why were the colonies afraid to make 
a strong central government ? 4. Illustrate the weakness of this new 
government. 5. Why were the colonies drifting apart ? 6. What is 
the "critical period" and why so called ? 7. What led to the calling 
of a Constitutional Convention ? 8. Name some of the notable men 
in that convention. 9. What were the main disputes and how were 
they decided? 10. Whose efforts were mainly instrumental in 
getting the states to adopt the Constitution? 1 1 . How may the Con- 
stitution be amended? 12. Why is our government called one of 
checks and balances ? 



CHAPTER XXXIV 
CONGRESS 

Congress. — Congress, the national lawmaking body, 
is composed of two houses, the Senate and the House of 
Representatives. Under the Confederation there was but 
a single body, or chamber, which was considered a failure ; 
but when the Constitution was framed, all the states 
except Pennsylvania and Georgia had two houses of their 
own ; so it was an easy matter to use the same plan in the 
national government. As we have said, it was believed 
that one house would check the decisions of the other, and 
there would be less danger of hasty and unwise legislation. 

The House of Representatives. — The lower House is 
an assembly representing the population of the whole 
country as if it were all in one great state. It is composed 
of members chosen every other year by the citizens of each 
state. A candidate for election to the House of Represent- 
atives must be at least twenty-five years old ; must have 
been seven years a citizen of the United States, and a 
citizen of the state from which he is chosen. 

A term of two years is a short one, but it was thought 
best to give the people frequent opportunity to express 
their wishes through an election. In this way the represent- 
atives wishing to be reelected must listen more attentively 
to the desires of their districts in the matter of laws. At 
present there are over four hundred members of the House 
of Representatives. 

The Constitution provides that each state shall have 

265 



266 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 




House of Representatives, Washington. 



at least one representative, and several states have but 
one ; but those of greater population are divided into dis- 
tricts of equal population and are entitled to a represent- 
ative from each district. The organized territories are 
each entitled to send to the House a delegate, who is allowed 
to speak on questions relating to his territory, but may 
not vote. 

When a vacancy occurs in the representation of any 
state on account of death or other cause, it is the duty of 
the governor of that state to call a special election in the 
particular district of his state to fill the vacancy for the 
remainder of the two-year term. 

The House of Representatives chooses one of its members 
•to be its presiding officer, called the Speaker. The name has 
come to us from England. In the early history of the House 
of Commons there was occasional need for some one to speak 



CONGRESS 267 

in its behalf before the Crown. It was natural for its 
presiding officer to be its spokesman on such occasions, 
and so the name was given to the presiding officer. The 
title was given to the presiding officers in the assemblies 
of the colonies and later passed to the state legislatures. 

The Speaker presides over the debates, puts the motions, 
and decides points of order. He also appoints the numerous 
committees of the House of Representatives. 

So many bills are proposed in each session of Congress 
that it is utterly impossible for the House to discuss even 
a small portion of them. In one session of the 56th Congress 
12,152 bills were introduced in both houses and there were 
only 137 working days. When we are reminded that it 
sometimes takes several days, or even weeks, to consider 
one important measure, we wonder what becomes of all 
those thousands of bills. Since it is clearly impossible for 
the House as a whole to consider and discuss them, the 
custom has arisen of appointing committees to sift out the 
important bills. There are more than fifty of these com- 
mittees appointed by the Speaker. Among the most 
important House Committees are the Ways and Means 
Committee, which has charge of all bills for raising revenue, 
the Appropriations Committee, the Banking and Currency 
Committee, and one on Foreign Affairs. These committees 
vary in the number of members from five to seventeen. 
Every member of the House is on some committee, and 
some members have places on several. 

When a bill is presented to the House by the reading of 
its title, the Speaker immediately refers it to the proper 
committee. Only a small proportion of the bills are ever 
reported back to the House, perhaps five or ten out of even- 
hundred. The others are " pigeon-holed " or " shelved,'' 
or said to be " killed in committee." By far the greatest 



268 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 



part of the work of Congress must therefore be done, not 
on the floor of the Senate and the House, but in the com- 
mittees' rooms. Since the Speaker appoints all these 
committees, he usually sees to it that there is a majority 
of his party friends on each one, and in that way he has 
power in pushing a bill through or in smothering it in the 
committee. No other officer of our government, save the 
President, has such great power. 

The Senate. — The Senate is composed of two members 
from each state, chosen for a term of six years. In the 
Constitutional Convention it was decided that there should 
be some members of Congress who would link the state 
governments more closely to the national government, yet 
still see to it that the powers and rights of the state were 
protected and not encroached upon by the central govern- 
ment. For that reason the Senators were to be elected by 




The Senate Chamber in the Capitol, Washington. 



CONGRESS 269 

the state legislatures to represent the states, while the 
members of the House were to be elected directly by the 
people. This has only recently been changecl. 

Within the last few years the presence of numerous 
millionaires in the Senate and the hints of corrupt voting 
in the legislatures that elected them created much dissatis- 
faction among the people of the United States. Conse- 
quently they began urging that the Senators be elected 
directly by the people. At first the Senate refused to 
allow an amendment on this point to pass. But the in- 
stances of corruption in state legislatures kept recurring 
and the demand for a popular election grew so strong that 
the Senate could no longer resist. An amendment was 
therefore passed by Congress and sent to the states for their 
approval. It has been ratified by the necessary three 
fourths of the state legislatures and is now a part of the 
Constitution. 

Alexander Hamilton was in favor of choosing Senators 
for life or during good behavior, while others of the Con- 
vention suggested terms of nine years, seven years, rive, 
four, and three years. Six years was finally decided upon 
as placing the Senators a little farther from the chance of 
losing office, so that they might the more often follow their 
own judgment rather than the demands of the people. The 
voice of the people is at times at fault, and it takes a little 
time for them to see their error. A Senator must be at 
least thirty years old. The Senate has always been com- 
posed of men who are older than the members of the House, 
and on the whole that body is supposed to possess greater 
dignity and learning. It has a reputation as a legislative 
body second to no other in the world. 

The Senate is presided over by the Vice President. It 
does its work in much the same manner as the House, 



270 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

save that the committees are chosen by the body rather 
than by the presiding officer. The Vice President has 
little power and not even a vote except in case of a tie. 

Bills Becoming Laws. — Bills pass Congress and be- 
come laws in much the same manner as in the state legis- 
latures. After passing both houses by a simple majority 
Df one or more, they are sent to the President for his signa- 
ture. If he does not approve a bill, he returns it to the house 
where it originated, stating his objections. This is called 
a veto. The bill may yet become a law by being passed 
by both houses with a two-thirds majority in each case. 

Questions 

i. How did our national Congress come- to have two houses? 
2. What is the lower House called? Why? 3. What qualifications 
must a representative have ? 4. Why was his term made short ? 
5. How are the representatives appointed among the states ? 6. How 
are vacancies in the House filled ? 7. Who is the Speaker ? 8. State 
his duties. 9. The manner in which he is chosen. 10. What is the 
purpose of committees in the House ? 11. Name a few of the leading 
committees. 12. What becomes of the great number of bills intro- 
duced into the House? 13. Who compose the Senate? 14. How 
has the election of Senators been changed recently? 15. What is 
the term of a Senator? 16. Why was it made longer than that of a 
representative? 17. Describe the process by which a bill becomes a 
law. 



CHAPTER XXXV 
NATIONAL COURTS 

National Courts. — One of the few new features in the 
Constitution was the creation of a national Supreme 
Court. Hamilton declared that the lack of a national 
judiciary, or court, was the crowning weakness of the 
Confederation. " Laws," said Hamilton, " are a dead 
letter without courts to expound and define their true 
meaning and operation." 

Without such courts the Confederation was held to- 
gether by such slight ties that it was ready to break apart 
at any minute. A government needs courts to enforce 
its laws by deciding when they have been violated and what 
punishments are to be inflicted for this disobedience. The 
national courts bind the states of the country firmly 
together in one union. 

The national courts consist of a Supreme Court, Circuit 
and District Courts. In recent years there has been added 
a Commerce Court. 

It was intended that the courts should be free from politics 
in order that all citizens might have a fair hearing in them. 
For this reason United States judges are all appointed for 
life or during good behavior, placing them beyond the 
reach of political powers. They are appointed by the 
President with the approval of the Senate. By act of 
Congress of 1903 the salary of the Chief Justice was fixed 
at $13,000 a year ; that of the Associate Justices at $12,000. 

271 



272 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 




NATIONAL COURTS 273 

The Circuit Judges receive S7500 and the District Judges 
$6000 annually. 

The Supreme, Circuit, and District Courts. — The Su- 
preme Court consists of a Chief Justice and eight Asso- 
ciate Justices. It holds annual sessions in Washington, 
beginning on the second Monday in October and continu- 
ing till May or June. This is the highest court in America, 
and it has many duties. It is the chief protector of the 
Constitution, because it decides what laws passed by 
Congress are contrary to the Constitution and pronounces 
them null and void. 

In recent years some cases of great importance to the 
people have been brought before this court. Several of 
the great- industrial " trusts " have been abolished by it, 
notably the Standard Oil Company and others which were 
held to be unlawful because they were restraining free trade 
among the people. Below the Supreme Court are the Cir- 
cuit and District Courts, which try less important cases 
that are sometimes appealed to the Supreme Court. 

The Commerce Court. — The Commerce Court has a 
large and very important field of duty. It decides such 
questions as the fairness of freight rates on the railroads. 
Railroads were formerly free to charge whatever rates they 
pleased, and in many cases they abused shippers intoler- 
ably. This court was established to adjust all grievances. 
Because of the many large combinations of capital engaged 
in trade, the field of interstate trade has become a very 

important one. 

Questions 

1. Discuss the courts under the Articles of Confederation. 2. What 
purpose do the national courts serve ? 3. How were the courts made 
free from political influence? 4. What salaries are paid to the 
Supreme Court Judges? 5. Discuss the Supreme Court. 6. What 
is the Commerce Court ? 



CHAPTER XXXVI 
THE PRESIDENCY 

The Office of President. — One of the greatest offices 
any man can hold is that of President of the United States. 
We have said that the chief weakness of the Articles of 
Confederation grew out of the fact that there was no 
executive to enforce laws. The members of the Constitu- 
tional Convention were determined to do away with this 
weakness. Some members wished to place the executive 
power in the hands of a committee. They feared to give 
so much power to one man, who might be tempted to make 
himself king. But since a committee cannot do things 
so promptly as a single person, as its members must discuss 
matters and will often disagree, the Convention finally 
decided that in order to get the laws enforced firmly and 
quickly, it would be better to put this great power in the 
hands of a President. 

The Term of Office. — Then the question arose as to 
how long the President's term of office should be. Some 
preferred a short term of three years, so that the country 
might the sooner rid itself of a man who proved unsatis- 
factory. Others preferred a longer term of seven years, 
in order that the President might have time to carry out 
his policies. Hamilton and Madison wished to make the 
term during good behavior, whether a few years or many. 
The majority, however, thought this was too much like hav- 
ing a king, and so it was finally decided that the President's 
term of office should be for four years and that he might 

274 



THE PRESIDENCY 275 

be reelected for other terms. Washington and Jefferson 
each refused a third term for personal reasons, and there 
exists to-day a strong prejudice against retaining any 
President in office longer than eight years. 

Nevertheless there are many people to-day who think 
four years is too short a term, because the presidential elec- 
tion always disturbs the business of the country. There 
are others who would limit the office to one term, because 
they say that the President often uses much of his time the 
first term in making friends and laying plans for reelection. 
In order to please politicians who would oppose him later 
if he should cross their wishes, he is tempted to do many 
things he ought not to do. Still other people advocate 
a six-year term for the President, with no second term open 
to him. 

The Choice and Election of a President. — How to 
choose the President was one of the most troublesome 
questions of the Convention. Many plans were proposed. 
Some believed that the President should be chosen by the 
people, but others objected, saying that the citizens had no 
means of knowing what sort of man would be suitable for 
that responsible office, and they would therefore be liable 
to make an unwise choice. For a considerable time the 
method most in favor was to have the President chosen by 
Congress, as he is in Switzerland to-day. Then it occurred 
to them that he might become a mere tool of Congress, 
whereas they wished the President to be independent of 
that body. It was finally decided that the President should 
be chosen by electors who should be appointed in what- 
ever way the state legislatures might direct. 

Each state chooses as many electors as it has senators 
and representatives in Congress, and these electors meet 
at their respective state capitals and ballot for President 



276 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 




THE PRESIDENCY 277 

and Vice President. These ballots from all the state 
capitals are sent to Congress, where they are counted. 
Provided he has a majority of all the votes cast, the man 
having the highest number of ballots is elected. If no can- 
didate obtains a simple majority, the House of Represen- 
tatives proceeds to choose a President from the three who 
received the highest number of electoral votes. 

It is interesting to know that the fathers of the Consti- 
tution feared to intrust the choice of a President to the 
people directly. But in spite of the purpose of those 
who made the Constitution, the citizens now have the power 
of choice. It has come about in this way : All state legis- 
latures have granted the people the right to choose the 
presidential electors. Through great party conventions 
the people set up their candidates for President, and then 
proceed to choose only such electors as will agree before- 
hand to vote for the people's candidate. It was the pur- 
pose of the convention that made the Constitution that the 
electors should be free to vote for whom they pleased, but 
the citizens have found a way to dictate by exacting a prom- 
ise before choosing the electors. 

The Duties of the President. — There are many duties 
of the President enumerated in the Constitution. Our 
President has charge of all dealings with foreign nations. 
He makes treaties that become law when ratilied by two 
thirds of the Senate. He receives foreign ambassadors and 
appoints a host of officials, chief of whom are postmasters, 
cabinet officers, and United States judges. The number of 
appointments at first was small, but it has increased rapidly 
with the country's growth. 

The early Presidents seldom removed competent officials 
who had been appointed by their predecessors, but Andrew 
Jackson took the ground that he had a right to remove all 



278 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

such appointive officers and give their places to his political 
friends. He removed two thousand in one year, more 
than all the Presidents before him had removed. This 
custom, known as the " spoils system," was followed by 
succeeding Presidents until 1883, when Congress passed a 
civil service law under which many classes of public offices 
are filled by appointment from a list of men who have 
passed the civil service examination. They hold office 
for life or during satisfactory service. This has produced 
a higher grade of service and a more competent class of 
public officials, and the President is relieved of much of 
the annoyance of the countless office seekers who attack 
the White House in droves after each presidential election, 
but particularly when a new party has come into power. 

The President has a share in lawmaking. He has the 
veto power, which is used in the same way as that of a state 
governor. Many bills of Congress have been killed by the 
President's veto, because the necessary two-thirds vote 
favorable to it could not afterwards be secured in both 
houses. The President has therefore been called the " third 
house of Congress." 

Whenever Congress meets, the President delivers to the 
two houses a message recommending that laws be made to 
cover certain timely public affairs. The early Presidents 
read their messages before a joint meeting of both houses, 
but for a hundred years the messages had been sent to Con- 
gress and read by the clerk. President Wilson has recently 
adopted the old custom of appearing in person and reading 
his message. . 

The President is the commander in chief of the American 
army and navy, but no President has taken personal com- 
mand during his term of office. In the time of discussion 
of the Constitution, some people feared to place the army 



THE PRESIDENCY 



279 



and navy in the President's hands for fear he might use 
them to make himself king. The President is not allowed 
to declare war, only Congress has this power ; but he might 
bring on a war by commanding the army or navy to attack 
a foreign power. United States troops are used to protect 
government property in times of strikes or other disorders. 

The Cabinet. — So great is the power of the President 
and so heavy are his duties that he needs many helpers or 
advisers. These men are appointed by him and are known 
as the President's Cabinet. 

The Vice President. — The Vice President is chosen in 
a way similar to that of the President, except that when 
no candidate obtains a simple majority of the electoral 
vote, the Senate chooses a Vice President from the two 
candidates standing highest on the list. As we have read, 
the Vice President presides over the Senate. In case of 
the President's death the Vice President succeeds to his 
office and duties. 

Questions 

1. Why did the fathers create the office of President? 2. Why 
was the power not given to a committee of several men ? 3. What 
difference of opinion was there regarding the President's term of 
office ? 4. Why do many people of to-day favor a change ? 5. What 
ways of electing the President were suggested? 6. How is he now 
chosen? 7. How has it come about that the people now really elect 
the President ? 8. Discuss the President's powers. 9. What is the 
spoils system ? 10. Why is the President sometimes called the " third 
house"? n. What constitutes the President's Cabinet? 12. How 
is the Vice President elected? 



CHAPTER XXXVII 
THE STATE DEPARTMENT 

The Secretary of State. — The most dignified place in 
the President's Cabinet is that of Secretary of State. It 
is the prize often bestowed on the man who has been most 
influential in the election of the President. In the early 
days of the Republic this position was regarded as the 
stepping-stone to the presidency. Jefferson, Madison, 
Monroe, and J. Q. Adams all served as secretaries of state 
before they were chosen Presidents. In cabinet meetings, 
the Secretary of State occupies the seat of honor at the 
President's right. In case of the sudden death or removal 
from office of both the President and Vice President, the 
Secretary of State becomes President. 

Work of the State Department. — Under the direction 
of the President, the Secretary of State has charge of all 
foreign relations of our government. He carries on the 
correspondence with the men sent to represent our nation 
in foreign countries ; he receives the ambassadors and 
others sent here by other nations, and introduces them to 
the President. When the President desires to communi- 
cate with any state governor, he does so through the state 
department. Recently when the state of California was 
considering the passage of a law depriving the Japanese 
of the privilege of owning farm land in that state, President 
Wilson sent Mr. Bryan, Secretary of State, to discuss the 
matter with Governor Johnson. The Secretary of State 
has charge of all treaties made with foreign powers ; he has 

280 



THE STATE DEPARTMENT 281 

the preserving and publishing of all laws and acts of Con- 
gress. The great seal of the United States is in his hands, 
and he affixes it to all the documents signed by the Presi- 
dent. 

The Secretary of State has several assistant secretaries, 
a chief clerk, six chiefs of bureaus, one translator, one pri- 
vate secretary, and more than fifty clerks, besides many 
others — a total of over a hundred who make up the office 
force of the state department. 

The work is divided up among different groups of men, 
known as bureaus. For example, the correspondence with 
England and France and other nations is assigned to the 
Diplomatic Bureau. All incoming letters and messages 
go first to the Bureau of Indexes and Archives, where they 
are opened and a record made of them ; then the chief clerk 
sends them to the proper person in the department bureau. 
the important ones going to the Secretary of State himself. 
The Diplomatic Bureau writes the letters of reply, sending 
them to the Secretary of State for his approval and signa- 
ture, after which the letters go to the Bureau of Indexes 
and Archives to be indexed and then to the Diplomatic 
Bureau to be mailed. This is what is known as government 
" red tape," but we can see why it is necessary to keep care- 
ful records and convenient indexes and files of all the 
government correspondence. 

Should a prince or princess be born to one of the royal 
families of a foreign nation, other kings and queens are 
interested because they may later wish a husband or a wife 
for one of their own royal children. So letters of congratu- 
lation are sent by all nations assuring the happy parents 
of their great joy over this event. Our government, for 
courtesy's sake, always joins in sending such letters, though 
clearly it would be impossible for foreign governments to 



282 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

send congratulations on the birth of our future Presi- 
dents. 

Many of the President's addresses and Thanksgiving 
Proclamations are written by the State Department; on 
the other hand, the President, himself, sometimes writes 
many of the dispatches of importance to be sent out by 
the State Department. 

The President meets in a social way all ambassadors 
from foreign countries in Washington; but he transacts 
no business whatever with them directly. All this must 
be done through the State Department. 

Foreign Representatives. — The United States and all 
other nations send representatives to foreign countries. Our 
country has now about 38 ambassadors and ministers at 
various foreign capitals. Those at London, Paris, Berlin, 
and other leading countries are called ambassadors and 
those sent to nations of less importance are styled minis- 
ters. Besides these we send consuls to all the leading 
cities abroad to look after the commercial interests of the 
United States in those districts. Most of these foreign 
representatives of ours are very poorly paid when compared 
with those representing other nations at Washington. 

The consuls, of which there are more than twelve hundred 
in the various foreign cities, look after the business interests 
of our citizens abroad. They have many duties. They 
protect and guard American commerce ; they provide for 
destitute American sailors and send them home. If one 
of our citizens dies abroad with no one to look after his 
property, a consul attends to it. Consuls keep a record of 
the arrival and departure from their ports of all American 
ships and their cargoes, and they look after vessels that 
are wrecked. They report to America any new inventions 
or improvements in manufacturing processes that they 



THE STATE DEPARTMENT 283 

observe abroad. Also all useful information relating to 
scientific discoveries or progress in the useful arts and trades 
is reported by them. 

Our country has been very lax in building up an effective 
consular service abroad. Other nations give to their 
consuls a thorough training and then a life appointment 
at a good salary. They thus secure a high grade of service. 
We fail to give our consuls the training, we pay them poorly, 
and many of the best men are discharged for political 
reasons when a new party gets into power. With a better 
system, our consuls would greatly extend our foreign trade 
and commerce. 

Questions 

1. What is the chief office in the cabinet ? 2. What are some of 
the duties of the Secretary of State? 3. Tell something of the work 
of the State Department. 4. What force of workers are needed in 
this Department? 5. What is a bureau" 6. What assistance does 
the State Department furnish the President ? 7. How is business 
transacted with foreign countries? 8. Discuss our consular service. 
9. In what respect are we behind other countries in this matter? 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 
THE TREASURY DEPARTMENT 

National Revenue. — We have already learned how 
necessary taxes or money is to the operation of our city 
and state governments, and it is, if possible, more impor- 
tant to our national government. Without money we 
should never have won in our war of independence, nor 
could we protect ourselves for a single year from enemies 
ready to spring up against us at the first show of weakness. 
We must have revenue and men appointed to look after 
the money affairs of the government. Without these our 
mails would choke the boxes, the courts would hold no terms 
to settle disputes, and criminals would neither be caught 
nor tried. All public officers would abandon their posts 
of service and the soldiers and the sailors would desert the 
flag. Worst of all, our foreign debts going unpaid would 
shortly bring on war with other powers. 

Under the Articles of Confederation, as we have learned, 
the central government had no power to levy taxes or 
impose tariffs on commerce. It could only request the 
states to contribute their just proportion of the expenses 
of the government ; and if they refused, nothing could be 
done about it. But under the Constitution this weakness 
was remedied by giving Congress power to tax the people 
directly if necessary, to impose tariff duties on foreign goods 
imported, and other means of taxation. The daily expense 
of carrying on our government amounts to a vast sum of 

284 



THE TREASURY DEPARTMENT 285 

money, and we may well wonder how the government ob- 
tains so much. 

The chief revenue is obtained by laying a tariff on imports 
and by taxing distilled liquors, beer, tobacco, and oleo- 
margarine. The Constitution has recently been changed 
so as to give Congress power to lay an income tax, that is, 
a tax on every citizen according to his yearly income. 

The Treasury Department. — The- care of all the public 
funds of the United States is awarded to the Treasury 
Department. It is the steam plant from which all the 
other departments get their power. The head of this 
department, the Secretary of the Treasury, is a member 
of the President's Cabinet. It is the department's duty to 
collect all tariff duties at the ports where foreign goods enter 
our country; to collect the internal revenue on whisky, 
tobacco, and the like ; to issue money in the form of coins 
and paper money called currency; to pay our debts, such 
as bonds, and interest on them ; and to control the national 
banks of the country. 

The Bureau of Engraving and Printing. — The Treas- 
ury Department is the most extensive and complex of the 
executive departments. Under it, the Bureau of Engrav- 
ing and Printing alone employs about 1600 people. Here 
is done the engraving of plates and the printing of all United 
States paper money, bonds, revenue stamps, and postage 
stamps. 

United States Mints. — Under the Treasury Department 
is also the direction of the United States mints where the 
government coins its money. They are located at Phila- 
delphia, Denver, New Orleans, and San Francisco. Gold 
and silver have become the chief money metals on account 
of their high value, their tendency not to corrode or rust, 
and the ease with which they may be worked. Gold or 



286 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 




Where Coins are Made. 

The Mint, Philadelphia, Pa. 

A Milling Machine. A Coining Machine. 

The Counting Room. 



THE TREASURY DEPARTMENT 287 

silver ore must be refined before it is sent to the mint. 
Refined gold or silver, called bullion, must first be assayed, 
or tested, to determine its purity. Both metals, when pure, 
are too soft for use as money, so an alloy of copper is 
added to give hardness and wearing qualities to them. A 
mixture of one tenth copper and nine tenths of either gold 
or silver constitutes the standard metal, which is nine 
tenths pure. 

The standard metal is rolled into strips of the thickness 
of the coin to be made. From these strips round pieces 
are cut by heavy machinery. Then each piece is weighed, 
and, when found correct, it goes to another machine, from 
which it comes forth with edge slightly raised on both sides. 
The purpose of this raised edge is to decrease the wear on 
the faces of the coin. It is then put under immense pres- 
sure between two engraved dies which stamp the proper 
inscriptions on its faces. At the same time the edge of 
the coin is milled. Then it is ready to do service for the 
people as money. 

The Life-saving Service. — Under the Treasury Depart- 
ment is also the Life-saving Service, which is of great impor- 
tance. Upon the danger points of the ocean coast and of 
the Great Lakes are located nearly three hundred life-saving 
stations, where more than two thousand men are employed. 
In the year 1903 there were 4337 lives in peril from disasters 
on the water, and such excellent service was rendered by 
the life-savers that only 24 of these were lost. In the same 
year the property endangered was worth over nine million 
dollars, and about nine tenths of this vast amount was 
saved. 



288 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

Questions 

i. Discuss the importance of the Treasury Department. 2. What 
would happen if the department failed to do its duty? 3. What 
are the chief means of obtaining funds to run our government ? 

4. What are some of the duties of the Secretary of the Treasury? 

5. Describe the mints. 6. What is standard metal? 7. What is 
the purpose of alloy ? 8. Describe how coins are made. 9. What 
can you say of the life-saving service ? 



CHAPTER XXXIX 
THE POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT 

Uncle Sam, the Mail Carrier. — The carrying of all the 
mail in the United States has been placed by law in the 
hands of the government. It is illegal for any private indi- 
vidual or company to endeavor to carry anybody's 
mail regularly from place to place. All mail matters are 
now under the charge of the Postmaster-General. 

The Post Office Department. — President Washington 
thought the directorship of the Post Office Department too 
insignificant to admit the Postmaster-General to his cabinet, 
because the country's mail was then limited; but in 1829 
the post office had become such an important department 
that the head was given a place at the cabinet table. The 
post office has since come to be the one department of 
government in which all the people are personally interested. 
Every day millions upon millions of our citizens are intrust- 
ing to the mails letters and postal cards, money orders and 
packages, for the safe and speedy delivery of which they 
are deeply concerned. 

Besides being the head of the post office department, 
the Postmaster-General appoints nearly all the officers of 
the department. He also makes postal treaties. Nearly 
5000 postmasters in the larger cities whose annual salaries 
are over $1000 are appointed by the President with the 
consent of the Senate. 

There are four Assistant Postmaster- Generals appointed 
by the President. They are in charge of the four bureaus 
u 289 



2QO CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

of the department. The first assistant looks after the 
general management of post offices with their clerks and 
carriers; the second has charge of the transportation of 
mails; the third furnishes stamps and has charge of the 
money affairs; while the fourth assistant looks after the 
appointment of about 75,000 postmasters and directs the 
inspectors. 

There has been too much politics in the appointment 
of postmasters to insure this department the best manage- 
ment. It would be far better if all postmasters could be 
placed under civil service rules and receive appointments, 
after passing the proper examinations, on account of merit 
and ability. They should hold office for life or during good 
behavior and satisfactory service. 

The post office department is a great system of business, 
and it needs at its head a trained business man who knows 
the value of every hour saved in delivering a letter. Post- 
master-General Wanamaker said, " I want to keep the mail 
bag open to the latest possible minute, then get it to its 
destination in the shortest possible time, and then get each 
separate piece of mail to the person for whom it is meant 
in the quickest possible way." 

Improved Service. — In the days of our first President 
an effort was made to speed the mails — to move them at 
the rate of one hundred miles in twenty-four hours. The 
carriers were then taking nearly thirty hours to go on horse- 
back or by coach from Philadelphia to New York. This 
distance is now covered by a fast mail in a very few hours. 
Our mail trains now run at the rate of fifty or sixty miles 
an hour. Mails are taken up and delivered without stops. 
They are sorted and put up in the postal cars so as to go as 
directly as possible to their destination. 

The rates of postage in the early days of the Constitution 



THE POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT 291 

were high. Six cents was charged for one letter sheet for 
thirty miles ; for sixty miles, eight cents ; for one hundred 
miles, ten cents ; and so increasing to as much as twenty- 
five cents for distances over 450 miles. A letter weighing 
one ounce is now carried to any post office in the land for 
two cents, and if the person to whom it is addressed cannot 
be found, it is carried back to the sender, sometimes a dis- 
tance altogether of 5000 miles. 

In the old days envelopes were not used. Letters were 
folded so the number of sheets could be counted. Stamps 
were not used then ; the amount of postage was written 
on the letter by the postmaster, and if the sender paid it, 
the word " paid " was added. If he did not, the one to 
whom the letter was sent was required to pay the postage. 
Since the post office at that time was required to support 
itself, letters were not sent from the country towns until 
enough postage had been deposited at the post office to pay 
the expense of sending them. 

Newspapers and books could not at first be sent by mail. 
After a time there was a great demand for cheap newspaper 
and magazine postage, and this has led to a reduction of 
rates greatly below the actual cost to the government for 
carrying such mails. In 1892 the Postmaster-General 
said that the present letter rate paid twice the cost of the 
letter mail, but that book and newspaper mail was carried 
at a loss of six cents a pound. Cheap postage on books, 
magazines, and newspapers has encouraged the people to 
read, and thus is justified as a measure of educating the 
people. 

Free Delivery. — For many, many years every one had 
to go to the post office for his mail. After a time the larger 
cities had postmen to deliver the mail daily to the homes 
and offices of the citizens, and this movement of better 



292 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

service has grown until even small cities have more than 
one daily free delivery. In still more recent years rural 
free delivery has become an accomplished fact, to the great 
convenience of the farmer. Rural free delivery is proving 
a costly service for the department, but it makes country 
life far more desirable to the farmer ; and it greatly stimu- 
lates adult education by enabling everybody to keep in 
close touch with what is going on in the world. The post 
office department has come to be the most important de- 
partment of all in its bearing on the education of the citizens 
of the United States. 

Registered Mail and Special Delivery. — Registered 
mail is a sort of government insurance for valuable articles 
sent through the post office. To insure its safe delivery, 
the package is registered at every post office through which 
it passes. Special delivery stamps, costing ten cents, pay 
for special and prompt delivery of letters and packages 
which bear them. 

Postal Savings. — A few years ago the post office added 
another feature of service to the people — a postal savings 
department. Banks where the people's money has been 
placed have frequently become bankrupt and the depositors 
have lost heavily. There was a feeling that if the United 
States government would accept the people's savings 
through the post office, it would be in safe hands. The 
banks were naturally opposed to this, and for years their 
influence prevented its realization. But finally there were 
elected to Congress enough friends of the measure to push 
it through. Now the postal savings department has in 
safe keeping millions of dollars of the people's money on 
which the government pays two per cent interest. 

The Parcels Post. — More recently still has come the 
parcels post, which greatly enlarges the work and usefulness 



THE POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT 293 

of the post office. The express companies opposed this 
measure for years, but it was proving of such value and 
service among foreign nations that our government finally 
adopted it. Millions of packages are carried daily, con- 
taining all sorts of things. Every one is benefiting from it, 
the farmers especially. 

The Postal Union. — In 1891 the United States entered 
into postal treaties with foreign governments. Over fifty 
different nations have joined in a Postal Union for purposes 
of carrying foreign mail at rates agreed upon. In this way 
correspondence between citizens of different countries is 
encouraged by reasonable rates. 

Questions 

1. Can anyone engage in the business of carrying mail ? 2. Why 
was there no Postmaster-General in Washington's day? 3. Tell 
about the improvement in mail service. 4. What were the old-time 
postal rates? 5. Describe the old-time envelope and stamp. 6. Tell 
about newspaper postage. 7. Free delivery. 8. What are postal 
savings? q. Discuss the parcels post. to. What is the purpose 
of registered mail? 11. What do you think of civil service rules? 



CHAPTER XL 
THE WAR DEPARTMENT 

The War Secretary. — The military affairs of our country 
are placed in the hands of the Department of War, at the 
head of which is a Secretary appointed by the President as 
a member of his cabinet. By the Constitution, the Presi- 
dent is made commander in chief, but he is never burdened 
with any but the most important questions relating to the 
army. 

The Secretary of War has under his charge such duties 
as securing from Congress the necessary appropriation of 
money for the upkeep of the army, the purchasing of sup- 
plies, the transportation of the army from place to place. 
He has under his care the Military Academy at West 
Point and all the national cemeteries. He has also the 
oversight of river and harbor improvements, and it is his 
duty to prevent obstructions to navigation. 

Work of the War Department. — The work of the War 
Department is divided among eleven bureaus. At the 
head of each bureau is a regular army officer. The Adjutant- 
General issues orders for the muster of troops, for the man- 
ner of organizing them, and for their movements. He 
keeps all army records. 

The Inspector-General visits all military posts, prisons, 
and the Military Academy. He reports upon matters of 
equipment and discipline of troops and the sanitary or 
health conditions of posts and prisons. He examines the 

294 



THE WAR DEPARTMENT 295 

reports of the officers who pay out the money of the depart- 
ment. 

The Quartermaster-General is charged with providing 
practically all army supplies except arms, rations, and 
medicines. He directs how the troops are to be clothed, 
armed, and transported. 

The food of the army is supplied by the Commissary- 
General, and medicine is furnished by the Surgeon-General. 
The arms are obtained by the Chief of Ordinance. The 
guns and weapons used by the army are generally manu- 
factured and repaired in the United States arsenals, which 
are under the control of the War Department. The 
arsenals at Springfield, Mass., and Rock Island, 111., 
manufacture rifles and carbines; while cannon and mortars 
are made at the arsenal at West Troy. X.Y. 

Modern Equipment. — The old, slow-firing guns for- 
merly used in the army have been exchanged for the long- 
range, quick-firing, breech-loading, modern gun. The old 
forts with their stone walls are giving way to earth para- 
pets and holes in the ground. Large rifled cannon are now 
used in our coast defenses. They carry projectiles weighing 
1000 pounds and more accurately a distance of thirteen 
miles. The guns are mounted upon disappearing carriages, 
or platforms, and behind low parapets. The range is found 
and the gun pointed while it is in a pit below the natural 
surface. The touch of a lever lifts the gun above the sur- 
face, when it is quickly fired and lowered again into the pit 
to be reloaded. 

The old mortar had no accurate range and could not 
regularly hit anything smaller than a good-sized city. But 
the new rifled mortar will find a ship's deck accurately. 
Our coast cities are now well defended by large guns on 
shore. 



296 



CITY, STATE, AND NATION 




THE WAR DEPARTMENT 297 

The Training of Army Officers. — The officers of the 
army are chiefly graduates of the West Point Military 
Academy, though a door is open to deserving soldiers who 
have made good records as noncommissioned officers and 
passed an examination. 

The West Point Military Academy is situated at a beau- 
tiful bend in the Hudson River above New York City. 
There are splendid buildings and modern forts; there are 
fields and horses for the exercise of both infantry and cavalry. 
The corps of cadets, or students, at this military school is 
composed of one student from each Congressional District, 
one from each Territory, one from the District of Columbia, 
and one hundred from the United States at large. They 
are all appointed by the President, but it has become the 
custom for the representatives each to select one cadet from 
his district, while the President appoints the hundred that 
are chosen at large. 

The choice is usually made after a competitive examina- 
tion. A cadet must be between seventeen and twenty- two 
years of age. His expenses while at this school are paid 
by the government's appropriating $540 a year for each 
student. The course covers four years, and the graduate 
has a splendid education. Graduates are commissioned as 
second lieutenants in the United States army. If there are 
more graduates than vacancies in the army, those not 
needed are honorably discharged with the payment of one 

year's salary. 

Questions 

1. What are some of the duties of the Secretary of War ? 2. What 
are the duties of the Adjutant-General? 3. What officer is charged 
with the work of supplying the army? 4. What can you say of 
modern guns compared with old-time ones ? 5. Where is West Point 
and for what noted ? 6. Tell about the training of the cadets. 



CHAPTER XLI 
OTHER CABINET DEPARTMENTS 

The Department of the Navy, etc. — The Secretary of the 
Navy has the same general duties and bears the same re- 
lation to the marine forces of the United States as does the 
Secretary of War to the land forces. His responsibilities 
in time of war are much heavier than in times of peace. 
The work of the department is divided among several 
bureaus. The Naval Academy at Annapolis, Md., is or- 
ganized upon a plan similar to that of the Military 
Academy at West Point, and the naval cadets are obliged 
to serve two years in the navy after their graduation. 
They are admitted between the ages of fourteen and eight- 
een and the course extends over six years. 

Department of Justice. — The legal adviser of the Presi- 
dent is called the Attorney- General. He also sits at the 
Cabinet table. He conducts all suits at law to which the 
United States is a party, either in the Supreme Court or in 
any other court; he exercises general supervision over all 
the United States district attorneys and marshals ; and he 
examines titles to land when, for any reason, the govern- 
ment wishes to purchase the land. 

Department of the Interior. — Just as the State Depart- 
ment takes charge of the foreign affairs of our nation, so 
does the Interior Department have to do with the home 
affairs. Here, as in the other departments, there are 
bureaus which are presided over by heads, usually called 
commissioners. 

298 



OTHER CABINET DEPARTMENTS 



299 




3 oo CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

The Pension Office. — The Commissioner of Pensions 
examines all claims made by soldiers and sailors for pensions 
granted under the laws of Congress. He is the final judge 
in each case. In the year 1901 there were 997,735 pen- 
sioners on the rolls, to whom were paid annually about 
$140,000,000. But the soldiers of the Civil War are all 
very old and great numbers are passing away every year, 
so while the pension fund has taken annually as much as 
one fourth of all the government's revenue, the sum is 
rapidly diminishing. The feeling prevails that those who 
risked their lives for the saving of the Republic should re- 
ceive more honor every year. 

Land Office. — The Commissioner of the Land Office 
has charge of the surveying and the selling of all the lands 
of our public domain. Shortly after the Revolution, the 
states that had claims to lands lying west of the Alleghany 
Mountains ceded them to the central government, and 
these lands became the public domain. They were added 
to by treaty, by purchase, and by war. The selling of all 
this property has meant an enormous amount of work for 
the Land Office, and there are millions of acres yet to be 
surveyed and sold. 

The Patent Office. — The Constitution of the United 
States gives Congress the power to make laws encouraging 
the work of inventors by issuing to them patents rights. 
To authors are also given copyrights. These give to the 
writer or inventor the exclusive right for a limited time to 
sell his writings or inventions. A patent is valid for seven- 
teen years, with the right of renewal for seven years more ; 
a copyright is good for twenty-eight years, and the time 
may be extended fourteen years. 

Department of Agriculture. — Perhaps no department 
of our government is now exerting so much good for the 



OTHER CABINET DEPARTMENTS 301 

future of our country as the Department of Agriculture. 
As the country becomes more and more populous we must 
make better use of our farm lands which have, in many 
cases, been abused and worn out by the ignorance of the 
farmers. The Department of Agriculture is the farmer's 
college, extending to him invaluable advice and suggestions 
for the improvement of crops and farm animals. 

Experiment Stations. — In all the states and territories 
the government maintains model farms to ascertain the kinds 
of crops best adapted to the nature of the soil. These 
farms are managed by scientific men who keep careful 
records of everything bearing on the cultivation, growth, 
and yield of the crops. All this information, printed in 
pamphlet form, is sent broadcast to the farmers who are 
interested enough to ask for it. Most of the pamphlets 
are free, but a few are sold for a small sum. 

Weather Bureau. — All over the country and upon the 
islands of the sea near the coast, signal stations are main- 
tained, where officers observe carefully the condition of the 
weather. They make daily and sometimes hourly reports 
to the central office in Washington. By means of these re- 
ports, the chief officer at Washington and other officers 
at the chief cities are enabled to predict with much accuracy 
the probable weather conditions in any region for the suc- 
ceeding twenty-four hours. In this way valuable assist- 
ance is given to farmers, and especially to seamen, who are 
warned of approaching storms. 

Bureau of Animal Industry. — One of the important duties 
of the Department of Agriculture is that of inspecting and 
certifying the grade of meats intended for export. This 
inspection of meats is usually made at the packing houses. 
Parts of each carcass are subjected to the microscope and 
those found diseased are condemned and must not be used 



3 02 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

for food. All live animals imported to this country are 
inspected, and those found to be diseased are slaughtered. 
The department also prevents diseased animals from being 
shipped from one state to another. 

Department of Commerce. — The Department of Com- 
merce is rapidly becoming a very important one. Under 
it are such bureaus as the Census and Immigration Bureaus, 
Foreign Commerce Bureau, the Bureaus of Weights and 
Measures, of Navigation, of Steamboat Inspection, the 
Fish Commission, the Coast Survey, the Lighthouse Board, 
and the Bureaus of Corporations and of Manufacture. 
This last-named bureau is assuming great importance be- 
cause it is expected to investigate the organization, conduct, 
and management of corporations and combinations engaged 
in interstate commerce, and to see that all antitrust laws 
enacted by Congress are enforced. It also promotes 
American manufactures and encourages foreign trade. 

Department of Labor. — The latest addition to the 
President's Cabinet is that of Secretary of Labor. It is 
his duty to gather and diffuse among the people useful 
information on subjects connected with labor, the earnings 
of laboring men and women, and how to advance their 
interests in education and in a social and moral way. 
This Secretary ascertains the cost of producing in foreign 
countries, the wages paid there, the hours of labor, the prof- 
its on the money invested in business, and the cost of living. 
The cause and settlement of labor troubles and many 
other important duties are placed with this department. 



OTHER CABINET DEPARTMENTS 303 



Questions 

1. Tell about the Secretary of the Navy. 2. Where is the Naval 
Academy ? 3. What are some of the duties of the Attorney-General ? 
4. What is the purpose of the Departments of the Interior ? 5. Tell 
something about the Pension Office. 6. What is the Land Office? 
7. Discuss the Patent Office. 8. What is the purpose of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture ? 9. What are Experiment Stations ? 10. State 
the purpose of the Weather Bureau. 11. What duties devolve upon 
the Secretary of Commerce? 12. Discuss the Secretary of Labor's 
department. 



CHAPTER XLII 
POLITICAL PARTIES 

Cooperation. — In any community the citizens may have 
difficulty in deciding what is the best policy to adopt for 
the common good. Each man has his own opinion as to 
how the government should be carried on, and this opinion 
is likely to differ from the opinion of others. A citizen 
who relies only on his own efforts to get his ideas carried 
out will certainly fail. Every one knows that it is folly to 
try to serve one's state or city single handed. A citizen 
must be willing to work in harmony with others ; he must 
yield some of his opinions and cooperate with other voters 
on important issues. The highest type of citizen is not 
the one who is always opposed to plans suggested by his 
neighbors, but the one who is quickest to cooperate in 
carrying through a good proposal even though he had no 
part in originating it. Teamwork is just as necessary to 
good government as it is in football or baseball. In order 
to get this necessary teamwork and to make it effective, 
men of like ideas and principles organize what is called a 
political party. This party has its rules, its officers, and 
its political principles or platform. Party organization is 
necessary to our kind of government. Every boy and girl 
should early learn the important lesson of working together 
in harmony and good will. 

Use of Organized Parties. — Parties serve other purposes 
besides that of enabling men and women of like ideas to 
join hands and put their measures through. Party men 



POLITICAL PARTIES 



305 



help to inform the citizens about the questions of govern- 
ment. Sometimes, it is true, party managers deceive the 
people in order to win votes, but this reacts on the party 
when the truth becomes known. It is through party or- 
ganization that a large proportion of the voters are gotten 
to the polls on election day. Carelessness about voting 
on the part of good people is one of the gravest dangers 
to our country. Business men are so occupied with their 
affairs that they begrudge the time given to voting. And 
so the scheming politicians have a chance to elect unworthy 
men. 

Parties in our History. There have been many differ- 
ent political parties in our country during its century and 
a quarter of life. Parties grow up for the purpose of solv- 
ing new and important questions. The parties of the early 
days differed on the question of having a strong central 
government. Later came the questions of protective tariff 
and internal improvements such as the national road. 
The slavery issue brought forth new parties and revolu- 
tionized the old ones. After the war the treatment of the 
freed negroes and the method of reconstructing the seceded 
states were questions which caused men to differ widely. 
To-day there are such weighty questions to solve that it is 
hard to predict what parties will prevail a few years hence. 

Loyalty to Party. — Men must be loyal to their party if 
they expect to win. Some voters are loyal because they 
hope for selfish gain through the party. They expect 
some paying office for themselves or for their friends, or 
they wish selfish favors, such as the business of furnishing 
the city with coal or other supplies. Perhaps they look 
for a profitable contract or franchise which may be awarded 
them for their support. We should not consider such 
citizens good party men, nor are they patriotic citizens. 
x 



306 CITY, STATE, AND NATION 

On the contrary, they are enemies to the common good. It 
is this spirit that will quickly ruin the government of any 
city or state. Men should be loyal to their party because 
it has principles which they are glad to support and because 
it will enable them to make good laws ; to choose good 
judges and honest, efficient officers to carry out the laws 
and the wishes of the community. Thus will happiness, 
justice, and prosperity prevail among all the people. 

While men can most effectively serve their community 
as a rule by working with their party, there are times when 
the good citizen should " scratch " the party ticket. If 
the party has failed to nominate good men for office at 
the primaries, it is much better to vote for desirable men 
on another ticket. When one party has been in power for 
some time, corrupt men may get control of it and be will- 
ing to see selfish men elected if it will serve their purposes. 
It is then that the patriotic man " scratches " his ballot rather 
than vote for a candidate whom he distrusts although he is on 
his party ticket. By helping to defeat corrupt candidates 
he forces his friends to see that only by nominating good 
men for office can his party be sure to win. 

True Service. — The noblest life any one can live is a 
life of service — service to one's family, service to one's 
fellow men, to one's city, state, or country. This does not 
necessarily mean service in the army ; it means helping 
along every good cause that brings real blessing to the com- 
munity. It means giving of one's time and labor and money 
in the form of taxes or contributions for the benefit of the 
life of the community. It means opposing one's neighbor 
sometimes for the good of the community. The good citizen 
looks first at home for the chance to serve his fellow man, 
and by serving his city well he is serving his country. 
Every citizen should ask himself : " How much genuine 



POLITICAL PARTIES 307 

sacrifice am I willing to make in time, labor, and money for 
the good of my community and my fellow men? " The 
answer to this question will be a searching test of his real 
patriotism and good citizenship. 

Questions 

1. Why is there need of political parties? 2. What good -results 
from them ? 3 . Mention questions that have brought forth or changed 
parties. 4. Why should men be loyal to their party ? 5. When is it 
wise to " scratch " a ticket ? 6. What is your idea of the duties of a 
good citizen? 7. Must a good citizen sometimes make personal 
enemies in order to do his duty to his city or state ? 



APPENDIX 

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED 
STATES OF AMERICA 

We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more per- 
fect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquillity, provide for 
the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the 
Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and 
establish this Constitution for the United States of America. 

Article. I. 

Section, i. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in 
a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and 
House of Representatives. 

Section. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of 
Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, 
and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for 
Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. 

No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to 
the Age of twenty-five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the 
United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of 
that State in which he shall be chosen. 

Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the 
several States which may be included within this Union, according 



QUESTIONS 

1. Name the five objects for which the constitution was adopted. 2. Of what 
does Congress consist ? 3. What is meant by legislative power ? 4. For how 
long a term are the members of the House of Representatives chosen ? 5. What 
are their qualifications ? 6. Can a citizen of one state be chosen to represent a 
district of another ? 7. In England a member of the House of Commons does not 
need to reside in the district he represents. What advantages has this method ? 

309 



3io APPENDIX 

to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to 
the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service 
for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all 
other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three 
Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and 
within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they 
shall by Law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed 
one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one 
Representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of 
New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, 
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New- 
York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Mary- 
land six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five. South Carolina five, and 
Georgia three. 

When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the 
Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such 
Vacancies. 

The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other 
Officers ; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment. 

Section. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed 
of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for 
six Years ; and each Senator shall have one Vote. 

Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the 
first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three 
Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated 
at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expira- 
tion of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the 
sixth Year, so that one third may be chosen every second Year ; and if 
Vacancies happen by Resignation, or .otherwise, during the Recess of 
the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make tempo- 
rary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which 
shall then fill such Vacancies. 

No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the 



QUESTIONS 

1. What is meant by three fifths of all other persons ? 2. Does our govern- 
ment as a usual procedure levy direct taxes upon the people ? 3. How does 
our government obtain its revenue ? 4. Can you suggest any states that now 
have only one Representative ? 5. What happens when a vacancy occurs in the 
House ? 6. How is the Speaker of the House chosen ? 7. How is the Senate 
constituted ? 



APPENDIX 311 

Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, 
and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for 
which he shall be chosen. 

The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the 
Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided. 

The Senate shall choose their other Officers, and also a President 
pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall 
exercise the Office of President of the United Stal 

The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. 
When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. 
When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice 
shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concur- 
rence of two thirds of the .Members present 

Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than 
to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any 
Office of honor. Trust or Profit under the United States : but the Party 
convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment. Trial', 
Judgment and Punishment, according to Law. 

SECTION. 4- The Times. Places and Manner of holding Elections 
for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by 
the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make 
or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of ch itors. 

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such 
Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall 
by Law appoint a different Day. 

SECTION. 5. Kacli House shall be the Judge of the Elections, 
Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of 
each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Number 
may adjourn from day to day. and may be authorized to compel the 
Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penal- 
ties as each Mouse may provide. 

Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, Punish 
its .Members for disorderly Behaviour, and. with the Concurrence of 
two thirds, expel a member. 



QUESTIONS 

1. What are the necessary qualifications of a Senator ? 2. What are the duties 
Of the Vice President? 3. When can he vote ? 4. What is meant by impeach- 
ment ? 5. What punishment may be imposed on a President who has been 
removed by impeachment ? 6. Look up the word " impeach " and decide whether 
or not Andrew Johnson was impeached. 



312 APPENDIX 

Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from 
time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their 
Judgment require Secrecy ; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of 
either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those 
Present, be entered on the Journal. 

Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the 
Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any 
other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 

Section. 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a 
Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid 
out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, 
except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from 
Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective 
Houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; and for any 
Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any 
other Place. 

No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he 
was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of 
the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments 
whereof shall have been encreased during such time ; and no Person 
holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either 
House during his Continuance in Office. 

Section. 7. All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the 
House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur 
with Amendments as on other Bills. 

Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives 
and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the 
President of the United States ; If he approve he shall sign it, but 
if not he shall return it, with his Objections, to that House in which it 
shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their 
Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two 
thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together 



QUESTIONS 

1. Who pays the salary of your Senators and Representatives ? 2. In which 
House must all tariff measures originate ? 3. Why ? 4. Give the simplest way 
in which a bill may become a law. 5. What becomes of a bill which the Presi- 
dent refuses to sign ? 6. What is meant by " veto " ? (Look it up in the dictionary.) 

7. May a Senator or Representative hold any other office at the same time ? 

8. Why or why not ? 



APPENDIX 313 

with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be 
reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall 
become a law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall 
be determined by Yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting 
for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House 
respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within 
ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, 
the same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless 
the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case 
it shall not be a Law. 

Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the 
Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a 
question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the 
United States: and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved 
by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds 
of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and 
Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill. 

SECTION. 8. The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect 
Taxes. Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for 
the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States : but all 
Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the L'nited 
States ; 

To borrow Money on the credit of the United States ; 

To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several 
States, and with the Indian Tribes; 

To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws 
on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States; 

To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and 
fix the Standard of Weights and Measures ; 

To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and 
current Coin of the United States; 

To establish Post Offices and post Roads ; 

To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing 



QUESTIONS 

I. How may a bill be passed over a President's veto ? 2. What happens if the 
President holds a bill in his possession for ten days ? 3. Can you give a reason 
why all duties and taxes were made uniform throughout the country ? 4. Name 
some powers of Congress. 5. Who may borrow money in the name of the 
United States ? 6. Why was Congress given the right to regulate foreign com- 
merce ? 



314 APPENDIX 

for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to 
their respective Writings and Discoveries ; 

To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court ; 

To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high 
Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations ; 

To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make 
Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water ; 

To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that 
Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years ; 

To provide and maintain a Navy ; 

To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and 
naval Forces ; 

To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the 
Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions ; 

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and 
for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service 
of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appoint- 
ment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according 
to the discipline prescribed by Congress ; 

To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over 
such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of 
particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of 
the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority 
over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the 
State in which the same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, 
Arsenals, dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings ; — And 

To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying 
into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by 
this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any 
Department or Officer thereof. 

Section. 9. The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any 
of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be pro- 
hibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred 



QUESTIONS 

1. Who has the power to declare war ? 2. How are authors and inventors 
protected ? 3. What courts may Congress establish ? 4. What people are 
referred to by the first paragraph of Section 9 ? 5. To which compromise of the 
Constitutional Convention does this section relate ? 6. See if you can find out 
whether or not Congress did forbid the importation of slaves after 1808. (Consult 
your history.) 



APPENDIX 315 

and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not 
exceeding ten dollars for each Person. 

The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, 
unless when in Cases of Rebellion*or Invasion the public Safety may 
require it. 

No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. 

No Capitation, or other direct, Tax, shall be laid, unless in Propor- 
tion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 

No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State. 

No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or 
Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another : nor shall 
Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay 
Duties in another. 

No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence 
of Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account 
of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be pub- 
lished from time to time. 

No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no 
Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, with- 
out the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, 
Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or for- 
eign State. 

SECTION. 10. No State shall enter into any Treaty. Alliance, or 
Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin .Money; 
emit Bills of Credit ; make any thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender 
in Payment of Debts; pass any bill of .Attainder, ex post facto Law 
or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of 
Nobility. 

No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Im- 
posts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may lie absolutely 
necessary for executing its inspection Laws: and the net Produce of all 
Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall lie 
for the LTse of the Treasury of the United States ; and all such Laws 
shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Can Congress by law tax any article carried from one state to another ? 
2. Do you know why this provision was inserted in the Constitution ? , 3. Can a 
state tax articles shipped from its borders to other states ? 4. Why was the rule 
made forbidding any Congressman to accept a present from a foreign ruler or 
country ? 5. Can a state make a treaty with another state or with a foreign 
country ? 6. Can you give a good reason for this rule ? 



316 APPENDIX 

No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of 
Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into 
any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, 
or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger 
as will not admit of Delay. 

Article. II. 

Section, i. The executive Power shall be vested in a President 
of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the 
Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for 
the same Term, be elected, as follows 

Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof 
may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of 
Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in 
the Congress : but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an 
Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed 
an Elector. 

The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by 
Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabit- 
ant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of 
all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each ; which 
List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of 
the Government of the United States, directed to the President of 
the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the 
Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the 
Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number 
of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the 
whole Number of Electors appointed ; and if there be more than one 
who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the 
House of Representatives shall immediately choose by Ballot one of 
them for President ; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the 
five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner choose the 



QUESTIONS 

i. What is meant by the executive power? 2. What is the President's term 
of office ? 3. Can you give any good reasons for or against making his term 
longer ? 4. How may Electors be chosen ? 5. How are they chosen to-day ? 
6. How do the Electors choose a President ? 7. Do you think Electors should 
be free to choose any one they desire for President ? 8. Give reason for your 
answer. 9. The method of voting for President and Vice President was changed 
by the XII amendment. Why ? 



APPENDIX 317 

President. But in choosing the President, the Votes shall be taken by 
States, the Representation from each State having one Vote ; A quo- 
rum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two 
thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be neces- 
sary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the 
Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be 
the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have 
equal Votes, the Senate shall choose from them by Ballot the Vice 
President. 

The Congress may determine the Time of choosing the Electors, and 
the Day on which they shall give their Votes ; which Day shall be the 
same throughout the United States. 

No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United 
States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligi- 
ble to the Office of President ; neither shall any Person be eligible to 
that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, 
and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States. 

In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his 
Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of 
the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the 
Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death. Resig- 
nation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring 
what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act 
accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be 
elected. 

The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a 
Compensation, which shall neither be Increased nor diminished during 
the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive 
within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any 
of them. 

Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the fol- 
lowing Oath or Affirmation : — 

" I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the 



QUESTIONS 

1. When the House of Representatives chooses a President, how many votes 
may be cast ? 2. If the Electors fail to choose a Vice President, who makes the 
choice ? 3. How is it done ? 4. Give a reason why the President's salary 
should not be increased during his term of office. 5. Give the President's oath. 
6. Suppose the President believes his duty urges him to one course of action while 
the people wish him to do differently, what should he do ? 



318 APPENDIX 

Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my 
Ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United 
States." 

Section. 2. The President shall be Commander in Chief of the 
Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several 
States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he 
may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of 
the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of 
their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and 
Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of 
Impeachment. 

He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the 
Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present 
concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Con- 
sent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers 
and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of 
the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise pro- 
vided for, and which shall be established by Law : but the Congress 
may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think 
proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of 
Departments. 

The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may 
happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions 
which shall expire at the End of their next Session. 

Section. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress Infor- 
mation of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Considera- 
tion such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he 
may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of 
them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the 
Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall 
think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Minis- 
ters ; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall 
Commission all the Officers of the United States. 



QUESTIONS 

1. Who is the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy ? 2. Does he ever 
take command in the field ? 3. Why or why not ? 4. How does the President 
recommend that Congress take any desired action ? 5. How did President 
Wilson change this custom ? 6. When may the President adjourn Congress ? 

7. Why not allow the President to adjourn Congress whenever he sees fit? 

8. Have rulers ever abused this power ? 



APPENDIX 319 

SECTION. 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of 
the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, 
and Conviction of, Treason. Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misde- 
meanors. 

Arti< i.k. III. 

Section, i . The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested 
in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress 
may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of 
the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good 
Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Com- 
pensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in 
Office. 

SECTION. 2. The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law 
and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United 
States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Author- 
ity ; — to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and 
Consuls; — to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction: — to 
Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party: — to Con- 
troversies between two or more States : — between a State and Citizens 
of another State: — between Citizens of different States, — between 
Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different 
States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, 
Citizens, or Subjects. 

In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Con- 
suls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court 
shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned 
the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and 
Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress 
shall make. 

The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be 
by Jury : and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes 
shall have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, 
the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law 
have directed. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is treason ? (Look it up in your dictionary.) 2. What is bribery ? 

3. How long do Judges of the Supreme and Inferior Courts hold office ? 

4. What reasons for and against this rule can you suggest? 5. Suggest some 
cases at law which come under the Supreme Court. 6. What is meant by trial 
Jury ? 7. Can you give arguments for and against Jury trial ? 



320 APPENDIX 

Section. 3. Treason against the United States, shall consist only 
in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving 
them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason 
unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on 
Confession in open Court. 

The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of 
Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, 
or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted. 



Article. IV. 

Section, i. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to 
the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. 
And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in 
which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the 
effect thereof. 

Section. 2. The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all 
Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States. 

A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other 
Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall 
on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, 
be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the 
Crime. 

No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws 
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or 
Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall 
be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour 
may be due. 

Section. 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into 
this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the 
Jurisdiction of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the Junc- 
tion of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of 
the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. 



QUESTIONS 

1. What constitutes treason in our country? 2. Why should there be two 
witnesses in order to convict of treason ? 3. If a criminal flees from one state to 
another, is he then safe ? 4. Could Texas divide up into several states if her 
people desired ? 5. What advantage and disadvantages could you suggest that 
would come to the people of Texas by dividing their state ? 



APPENDIX 321 

The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all need- 
ful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property 
belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall 
be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or 
of any particular State. 

Section. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this 
Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them 
against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the 
Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic 
Violence. 

Article. V. 

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it 
necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the 
Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall 
call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either case, 
shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes as part of this Constitution. 
when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, 
or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other 
Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; Provided that 
no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year one thousand 
eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth 
Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article ; and that no State, 
without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the 
Senate. 

Article. VI. 

All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the 
Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United 
States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. 

This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall 
be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be 
made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme 
Law of the land ; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, 
any thing in the Constitution or laws of any State to the Contrary not- 
withstanding. 

QUESTIONS 

1. When might the President send troops to a state to be used there ? 2. When 
a state needs United States troops to suppress disorder, how does it proceed ? 
3. Can you give an instance when a state called for help ? 4. How may the 
Constitution be amended ? 5. How many amendments have been made ? 
Y 



322 APPENDIX 

The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the 
Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judi- 
cial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall 
be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution ; but no 
religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or 
public Trust under the United States. 

Article. VII. 

The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient 
for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so rati- 
fying the Same. 

THE AMENDMENTS 

I 
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, 
or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of 
speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assem- 
ble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. 

II 

A well-regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free 
State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be 
infringed. 

Ill 

No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without 
the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be 
prescribed by law. 

IV 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, 
and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be 
violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, sup- 
ported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to 
be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 

QUESTIONS 

i. Can Congress recognize any religion as the established one ? 2. What 
can you say for or against this law ? 3. What is meant by freedom of speech ? 
4. By freedom of the press ? 5. Do these mean that any one can say or print 
malicious falsehood about other people and not be liable to punishment ? 6. Do 
you know any reason for inserting the provision against quartering troops in a 
house ? 7. Under what condition have officers a right to search a home ? 



APPENDIX 323 



No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous 
crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in 
cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in 
actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person 
be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or 
limb; nor shall be compelled in any Criminal Case to be witness 
against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without 
due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, 
without just compensation. 

VI 

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a 
speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district 
wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have 
been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature 
and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses 
against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining Witnesses in 
his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. 



VII 

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed 
twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no 
fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the 
United States, than according to the rules of the common law. 



VIII 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, 
nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 



QUESTIONS 

1. If a citizen has been once tried for an alleged offense and acquitted, can he 
be tried again for the same offense ? 2. When and under what conditions may 
the government seize private property ? 3. Why should accused people have a 
speedy trial ? 4. When may a citizen demand a jury trial in common law ? 
5. Would you rather trust your case to agood judge or to the average jury ? 6. Must 
all jurors agree before the decision is rendered ? 7. What could you say in favor 
of allowing a three-fourths majority of a jury to render a decision ? 8. What is 
meant by bail ? 



324 APPENDIX 

IX 

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be 
construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

X 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution 
nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respec- 
tively, or to the people. 

XI 

The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to 
extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against 
one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or 
Subjects of any Foreign State. 



XII 

The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot 
for President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be 
an inhabitant of the same State with themselves ; they shall name in 
their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots 
the person voted for as Vice President, and they shall make distinct 
lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for 
as Vice President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists 
they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the gov- 
ernment of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate ; 
— The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and 
House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall 
then be counted ; — The person having the greatest number of votes for 
President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the 
whole number of Electors appointed ; and if no person have such 



QUESTIONS 

i. To whom do the powers not mentioned in the Constitution belong ? 
2 Why was it thought best to vote for President and Vice President in distinct 
ballots ? 3. Tell how the votes are counted. 4. What is meant by a majority 
of votes? 5. By plurality ? 6. Are our officers of city, county, and state chosen 
by majority or plurality vote ? 7. What can you say in favor of or in opposition to 
this ? 8. If the electors fail to elect, what then happens ? 



APPENDIX 325 

majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not 
exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House 
of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. 
But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the 
representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this 
purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the 
States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. 
And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President 
whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the 
fourth day of March next following, then the Vice President shall act 
as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional dis- 
ability of the President. The person having the greatest number of 
votes as Vice President, shall be the Vice President, if such number be a 
majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person 
have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the 
Senate shall choose the Vice President ; a quorum for the purpose 
shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a 
majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no 
person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be 
eligible to that of Vice President of the United States. 

XIII 

Section i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a 
punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, 
shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their juris- 
diction. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
appropriate legislation. 

XIV 

Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and 
subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and 



QUESTIONS 

1. What happens if both the Electors and the House of Representatives fail to 
elect a President before the fourth day of March following the November election ? 
2. What war was fought to secure the XIII amendment ? 3. Under what con- 
ditions do we now have involuntary servitude ? 4. Who are citizens of the 
United States ? 5. How may a foreigner be naturalized ? 6. Do you think the 
time required for naturalization too long or too short ? 



326 APPENDIX 

of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any 
law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the 
United States : nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, 
or property, without due process of law ; nor deny to any person within 
its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 

Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several 
States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole num- 
ber of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when 
the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President 
and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, 
the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the 
Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such 
State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, 
or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other 
crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the pro- 
portion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole 
number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 

Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Con- 
gress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, 
civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, 
having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an 
officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, 
or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Con- 
stitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or 
rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies 
thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, 
remove such disability. 

Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, 
authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions 
and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall 
not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall 
assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or 



QUESTIONS 

1. Under what conditions may a citizen be deprived of life, liberty, or property ? 

2. How are Representatives to be apportioned according to the XIV amendment ? 

3. What is said here about officers of the United States who afterward engaged in 
rebellion? 4. How may Congress remove this disability ? 5. What punishment 
was given to the leaders of the Rebellion ? 6. Why was the punishment made 
light ? 7. Do you think this was the best course ? 



APPENDIX 327 

rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or eman- 
cipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall 
be held illegal and void. 

SECTION 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appro- 
priate legislation, the provisions of this article. 



XV 

Section i. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall 
not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on 
account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article 
by appropriate legislation. 

XVI 

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, 
from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several 
States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. 



XVII 

The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators 
from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years ; and each 
Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the 
qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of 
the State legislature. 

When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the 
Senate, the executive authority of each State shall issue writs of election 
to fill such vacancies : Provided that the legislature of any State may 
empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until 
the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct. 

This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election 
or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the 
Constitution. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Has the Confederate war debt ever been paid ? 2. Why was this provision 
put in the Constitution by amendment ? 3. May a person be deprived of the 
right to vote on account of race or color ? 4. Can a state deprive a citizen of his 
right to vote on account of inability to read and write ? 5. What would you think 
of such a law? 6. Give the meaning of the XYI and XVII amendments. 
7. What change is made in the election of Senators ? 



INDEX 



Advertising, Street, 127, 128. 
After-prison Period, 227, 228. 
Agriculture, Department of, 301-303. 
Aqueducts, Roman, 33. 
Articles of Confederation, The, 258-260, 

284. 
Ashokan Reservoir, 46. 
Assessor, The, 189. 
Australian Ballot, The, 252, 253. 
Automobile, The, 6. 

Baltimore, 54, 55; Burning of, 178. 

Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, no. 

Baths, 1 1 1 . 

Berlin, 2, 21, 101. 

Black Hole, 29. 

Bombay, 2. 

Boston, 10, 64, 94. 

Brooklyn, 4.), 40. 

Buffalo, ()i. 

Bureau, Weather, 301. 

Bureau of Animal Industry, 301, 302. 

Cabinet, The, 279. 

Cable Cars, 114. 

Cairo, 2. 

Catch-basins, 38. 

Catskill Mountains, 46. 

Charities, United, 90. 

Charity, 88. 

Checks and Balances, 263, 264. 

Chicago, 1, 35, 42, 63, 71, 07, 103. 10S. 
140,141; Transportation in, 6 ; Burn- 
ing of, 178. 

City, The, 1 ; Life in the, 3; City Busi- 
ness Manager, 208, 210. 

City Housing, (Chapter on) 78-86. 

City Planning, 10, 14, 15, 21 ; Objects of , 
15; Checkerboard Plan, 16. 

Civic Center, 19. 

Cleveland, 42, 71, 79, 94, 108. 

Collinwood Fire, 178. 

Commerce, 273; Control of, 262. 

Commission Government, 206-208. 

Commissioners, County, 233. 

Confederation, Articles of, 25S-26C, 284, 

Congress, (Chapter on) 265-270. 



Constitution, The, 284, 285, 300-327 ; 

Amending the, 263; Written, 243. 
Constitutional Convention, 260-262. 
Contact Beds, 60. 
County Government, (Chapter on) 215- 

218. 
County Seat, 215. 
Courts, Circuit, 273; District, 273; 

National, 271-273; State, 245-240; 

Supreme, 273. 
Croton Lake, 46 ; River, 46. 
Cumberland Road, 237. 
Curfew, 156. 

Dayton, 04. 
Dearborn, Ft., 1. 

Death Rate. 2s. 

Delivery. Free, 201 ; Special, 292. 

Department of Commerce, 302; of 

Labor, 302. 
Des Moines, 93, 04. 
Drainage, 27, (Chapter on) 51-61. 
Drainage Canal, 42, 58. 
Dust Nuisani e, ja 

Elections. (Chapter on) 251-257. 
Electric Train. 115. 
Elevated Lines, 116. 
Esopus, 40. 

Filtering Water, 45. 

Fire Fighting, (Chapter on) 165-175: 

Patrol, 175; Limits. 1S4. 
Fire Protection, (Chapter on) 177-187. 
Food Inspection, 28. 
Franchises, 122-125. 
Freight Terminals, (Chapter on) 103-109. 

Garbage, (Chapter on) 63-71 ; License 
System, 65, 66 ; Contract System, 65, 
66 ; Municipal System, 66 ; Reduction 
of, 70; Disposal Plant, 71. 

Gas Pipe, 125, 126. 

Glasgow, 41. 

Government, (Chapter on) 194-197; 
State, (Chapter on) 243-247 ; City, 
(Chapter on) 19S-203 ; Commission, 



329 



33° 



INDEX 



206-208; Central, (Chapter on) 258- 
264; County Type, 212-213; Depart- 
mentsof, 196; NewFormsof, (Chapter 
on) 205-210; Township, 211, 212. 
Governor, State, 245. 

Hamilton, Alexander, 269, 271. 
Health, City, 11, 24; Department of, 30. 
Highways, Public, (Chapter on) 120-129. 
House of Representatives, 265-268. 

Illinois Central Railroad, 112. 

Illinois River, 43. 

Indeterminate Sentence, 226, 227. 

Indianapolis, 49, 94. 

Initiative, The, 253. 

Interior, Department of, 298, 299. 

Iroquois Theater Fire, 178. 

Jails, County, 219, 220. 

Jenner, Edward, 25. 

Judges, State, 245, 246. 

Justice, Chief, 271; Associate, 271. 

Kansas City, 105. 

Lake Michigan, 43. 

Lake Shore Railroad, 112. 

Leather Hose, Invention of, 169. 

Legislature, State, 244. 

Leipzig, 40. 

L'Enfant, Pierre Charles, 12. 

Library, The Public, (Chapter on) 157- 

164. 
License System of Garbage, 65, 66. 
Life-saving Service, The, 287. 
London, 2, 10, 35, 61. 
Los Angeles, 48, 94. 

Manchester, 41. 

Manholes, 57. 

Markets, Municipal, (Chapter on) 92-95. 

Mayor, The, 199, 200. 

Mints, U. S., 285-287. 

Munich, 25. 

Nashville, 94. 

Navy, The, 298. 

New Amsterdam, 168. 

New Orleans, 94, 106, 107, 108. 

New York, 1, 2, 46, 69, 85, 112, 113, 132. 

New York Central Railroad, 113. 

Noise, Abatement of, 100-102. 

Nominations, Direct, 252. 



Office, Land, 300 ; Pension, 300 ; Patent, 

300. 
Ohio River, 44. 

Panama Canal, 46. 

Parcels Post, 292, 293. 

Pardon Boards, 227. 

Paris, 2, 13, 21, 75. 

Parks, 20, 139, 141-144. 

Pasadena, 59. 

Passenger Transportation, (Chapter on) 

110-119. 
Pasteur, Louis, 26. 
Patents, 300. 

Paving, Asphalt, 121; Brick, 122, 123. 
Penn, William, 16. 
Pension Office, 300. 
Philadelphia, 1, 84, 85, 98, 107. 
Pittsburg, 21. 
Play, Education of, 138. 
Playgrounds, 20, 154; Movement, 139. 
Police, 200-203. 

Political Parties, (Chapter on) 304-307. 
Poor, The, (Chapter on) 87-91. 
Poor Relief, Methods of, 88, 230, 231. 
Population, The, 1. 
Postal Savings, 292. 
Postal Union, 293. 
Postmaster-General, 289. 
Postoffice, The, (Chapter on) 280-293. 
Potomac River, 44. 

Presidency, The, (Chapter on) 274-279. 
President, The Choice and Election of, 

275 ; Duties of, 277. 
Prisons, State and County, (Chapter on) 

219-229; Labor, 224-226. 

Recall, The, 253-254. 

Recreation, Public, (Chapter on) 138- 
145- 

Redlands, 59. 

Referendum, The, 253. 

Representatives, Foreign, 282, 283; 
House of, 265-267. 

Riis, Jacob, 140. 

Ringstrasse, 14. 

Roads, Improvement of, 120, 121 ; Brick, 
240; Concrete, 240; Country, (Chap- 
ter on) 233-242 ; Macadam, 240. 

Rubbish, (Chapter on) 63-71. 



Salt Lake City, 58. 
San Francisco, 48, 71, 
Sanitation, 24, 26. 



18. 



INDEX 



331 



Schools, (Chapter on) 146-156; Hygiene, 

I5I-I53- 
Secretary of State, 280-282 ; of War, 

294. 
Senate, The, 268-270. 
Sewage, 38; Disposal, 54, 55; Purifica- 
tion of, 50. 
Sewerage, (Chapter on) 51-61; Systems 

of, 53- 
Short Ballot, 215, 254. 
Single Tax, 189-igi. 
Slums and Health, 7g, 80. 
Smallpox, 25. 
Smoke, Abatement of, (Chapter on) 96- 

102. 
Social Center, 20, 144, 155. 
Springs, 39. 
State Department, The, (Chapter on) 

280-283. 
State Prison, 221-223. 
Staten Island, 46. 
Steam Roads, tix. 
Stillwater Prison, 228-229. 
Stover, Charles, 140. 
St. Paul, 04. 
St. Petersburg, 2. 
Streets, Diagonal, 13 : Cleaning. (Chapter 

on) 71-76; Cars, 114; Improving of, 

120, 122; System of, 73. 
Suburbs, 12. 
Subways, 116. 
Suffrage, Manhood, 248-249; Woman's, 

249, 250; Negro, 249. 

Tax, Road, 237. 

Taxes, (Chapter on) 188, 189. 

Tenements, 78, 79. 



Three-fifths Compromise, 261, 262. 

Tokio, 2. 

Toledo, 94. 

Tramp, The, 90, 91. 

Transportation, 5, 6. 

Treasury, The, 284-288. 

Trees, (Chapter on) 130-137; Care and 

Control of, 133. 
Tuberculosis, 26. 
Typhoid, 26, 38. 

Vaccination, 25. 

Yanc ouver, 68. 

Ventilation, 29. 

Vice-President, The, 279. 

Vienna, 13. 

Vivian, Henry, 79. 

Voters, The, (Chapter on) 248-250. 

Voting Machines, 254-256. 

Wages, 3- 

War Department, The, (Chapter on) 

294-296. 
Washington, 1 

Washington, George, 12. 

Water Meter, 45. 

Water Supply, (Chapter on) 31-49; 

Distribution of, 35. 
Wells. 40. 

West Point. 2qo, 207. 
Wires, Telephone and Electric Light, 126, 

127. 
Woolworth Building, 98. 
Worcester. 64. 

Yosemite Valley. 48. 

Zones, City, 6, 22. 



T 



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